Electrocatalysis of asulam on cobalt phthalocyanine modified multi-walled carbon nanotubes immobilized on a basal plane pyrolytic graphite electrode

Design of smart nanoparticles for the electrochemical detection of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine to allow in field screening by law enforcement officers

A portable and highly sensitive sensor was designed for the specific detection of 3,4-methyl-enedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA), in a range of field-testing situations. The sensor can detect MDMA in street samples, even when other controlled substances drugs, or adulterants are present. In this work, we report for the first time a sensor using electroactive molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles computationally designed to recognize MDMA and then produced using solid phase synthesis. A composite comprising chitosan, reduced graphene oxide, and molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles synthesized for MDMA for the first time was immobilized on screen-printed carbon electrodes. The sensors displayed a satisfactory sensitivity (106.8 nA × μM-1), limit of detection (1.6 nM; 0.31 ng/mL), and recoveries (92-99%). The accuracy of the results was confirmed through validation using Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). This technology could be used in forensic analysis and make it possible to selectively detect MDMA in street samples.

CO2-plasma surface treatment of graphite sheet electrodes for detection of chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin and sulphanilamide

Graphite sheet (GS) electrodes are flexible and versatile substrates for sensing electrochemical; however, their use has been limited to incorporate (bio)chemical modifiers. Herein, we demonstrated that a cold (low temperature) CO2 plasma treatment of GS electrodes provides a substantial improvement of the electrochemical activity of these electrodes due to the increased structural defects on the GS surface as revealed by Raman spectroscopy (ID/IG ratio), and scanning electron microscopy images. XPS analyses confirmed the formation of oxygenated functional groups at the GS surface after the plasma treatment that are intrinsically related to the substantial increase in the electron transfer coefficient (K0 values increased from 1.46 × 10-6 to 2.09 × 10-3 cm s-1) and with reduction of the resistance to charge transfer (from 129.8 to 0.251 kΩ). The improved electrochemical activity of CO2-GS electrodes was checked for the detection of emerging contaminant species, such as chloramphenicol (CHL), ciprofloxacin (CIP) and sulphanilamide (SUL) antibiotics, at around + 0.15, + 1.10 and + 0.85 V (versus Ag/AgCl), respectively, by square wave voltammetry. Limit of detection values in the submicromolar range were achieved for CHL (0.08 μmol L-1), CIP (0.01 μmol L-1) and SFL (0.11 μmol L-1), which enabled the sensor to be successfully applied to natural waters and urine samples (recovery values from 85 to 119%). The CO2-GS electrode is highly stable and inexpensive ($0.09 each sensor) and can be easily inserted in portable 3D printed cells for environmental on-site analyses.

Current electroanalytical approaches in the carbamates and dithiocarbamates determination

Pesticides are a suitable tool for controlling plagues and disease vectors. However, their inappropriate use allows for contamination of the environment, soil, water, and foods. Carbamates and dithiocarbamates pesticides present accumulative effects in the human body resulting in hormonal, neurological and reproductive disorders, and some are still suspected or proven to give carcinogenic or mutagenic effects. This review provides a current electroanalytical approach in the carbamates and dithiocarbamates determination, showing the use of voltammetric techniques such as amperometry, cyclic and linear scan, differential pulse, and square wave voltammetry, indicating their advantages, disadvantages, and perspectives in electroanalytical detection of carbamates and dithiocarbamates in natural water and foods. Also are reported the different materials used in the preparation of working electrodes since their choice has an important impact on the success of the analytical applications, resulting in suitable sensitivity, selectivity, stability, and robustness.

Onion-like Carbons Provide a Favorable Electrocatalytic Platform for the Sensitive Detection of Tramadol Drug

This work reports the first study on the possible application of nanodiamond-derived onion-like carbons (OLCs), in comparison with conductive carbon black (CB), as an electrode platform for the electrocatalytic detection of tramadol (an important drug of abuse). The physicochemical properties of OLCs and CB were determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The OLC exhibits, among others, higher surface area, more surface defects, and higher thermal stability than CB. From the electrochemical analysis (interrogated using cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy), it is shown that an OLC-modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE-OLC) allows faster electron transport and electrocatalysis toward tramadol compared to a GCE-CB. To establish the underlying science behind the high performance of the OLC, theoretical calculations (density functional theory (DFT) simulations) were conducted. DFT predicts that OLC allows for weaker surface binding of tramadol (E _ad = -26.656 eV) and faster kinetic energy (K.E. = -155.815 Ha) than CB (E _ad = -40.174 eV and -305.322 Ha). The GCE-OLC shows a linear calibration curve for tramadol over the range of ∼55 to 392 μM, with high sensitivity (0.0315 μA/μM) and low limit of detection (LoD) and quantification (LoQ) (3.8 and 12.7 μM, respectively). The OLC-modified screen-printed electrode (SPE-OLC) was successfully applied for the sensitive detection of tramadol in real pharmaceutical formulations and human serum. The OLC-based electrochemical sensor promises to be useful for the sensitive and accurate detection of tramadol in clinics, quality control, and routine quantification of tramadol drugs in pharmaceutical formulations.

Sequential electrodeposition of Cu-Pt bimetallic nanocatalysts on boron-doped diamond electrodes for the simple and rapid detection of methanol

In this work, a novel electrochemical sensor for methanol determination was established by developing a bimetallic catalyst with superiority to a monometallic catalyst. A Cu–Pt nanocatalyst was proposed and easily synthesized by sequential electrodeposition onto a boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode. The successful deposition of this nanocatalyst was then verified by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy. The electrodeposition technique and sequence of metal deposition significantly affected the surface morphology and electrocatalytic properties of the Cu–Pt nanocatalyst. The presence of Cu atoms reduced the adsorption of other species on the Pt surface, consequently enhancing the long-term stability and poisoning tolerance of Pt nanocatalysts during the methanol oxidation process. This advanced sensor was also integrated with sequential injection analysis to achieve automated and high-throughput analysis. This combination can significantly improve the detection limit of the developed sensor by approximately 100 times compared with that of the cyclic voltammetric technique. The limit of detection of this sensor was 83 µM (S/N = 3), and wide linearity of the standard curve for methanol concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 1000 mM was achieved. Finally, this proposed sensor was successfully applied to detect methanol in fruit and vegetable beverage samples.

Bio-inspired PtNPs/Graphene nanocomposite based electrocatalytic sensing of metabolites of dipyrone

Noble metal nanoparticles are known to electrocatalyze various redox reactions by improving the electron transfer kinetics. In the present study, we have introduced a facile bioinspired synthesis of PtNPs and their integration for the formation of PtNPs/graphene nanocomposite using Psidium guajava (guava) leaves extract. Graphene used in nanocomposite formulation was synthesized by exfoliation of graphite in water/acetone (25:75 v/v) mixture followed by mechanical shearing using ultrasonication and microwave irradiation. PtNPs/graphene nanocomposite was drop-cast onto a glassy carbon electrode (GCE, 3 mm dia). The electrocatalytic activity of PtNPs/graphene nanocomposite was tested in a three-electrode system for sensing of metabolic products of dipyrone (DIP) formed through 1 e^- and 2 e^- transfer reactions. The modified electrode exhibited almost 50% reduction in electrode resistance. The limit of detection was found to be 0.142 μM with sensitivities of 0.820 and 0.445 μA․μM^-1cm^-2 for DIP concentration below and above 100 μM, respectively, using square wave voltammetry. The signal of sensing of metabolites of DIP was almost invariant in the presence of glucose, dopamine, uric acid, and ciprofloxacin; however, the response current was decayed by 20% within the 10th cycle. The sensing of DIP spiked in treated sewage-water and running tap-water samples was ∼100% recoverable and comparable with HPLC.

Supramolecular assemblies of carbon nanocoils and tetraphenylporphyrin derivatives for sensing of catechol and hydroquinone in aqueous solution

Non-enzymatic electrochemical detection of catechol (CC) and hydroquinone (HQ), the xenobiotic pollutants, was carried out at the surface of novel carbon nanocoils/zinc-tetraphenylporphyrin (CNCs/Zn-TPP) nanocomposite supported on glassy carbon electrode. The synergistic effect of chemoresponsive activity of Zn-TPP and a large surface area and electron transfer ability of CNCs lead to efficient detection of CC and HQ. The nanocomposite was characterized by using FT-IR, UV/vis. spectrophotometer, SEM and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were used for the electrochemical studies. CNCs/Zn-TPP/GCE nanosensor displayed a limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ) and sensitivity for catechol as 0.9 µM, 3.1 µM and 0.48 µA µM-1 cm-2, respectively in a concentration range of 25-1500 µM. Similarly, a linear trend in the concentration of hydroquinone detection was observed between 25 and 1500 µM with an LOD, LOQ and sensitivity of 1.5 µM, 5.1 µM and 0.35 µA µM-1 cm-2, respectively. DPV of binary mixture pictured well resolved peaks with anodic peak potential difference, ∆Epa(CC-HQ), of 110 mV showing efficient sensing of CC and HQ. The developed nanosensor exhibits stability for up to 30 days, better selectivity and good repeatability for eight measurements (4.5% for CC and 5.4% for HQ).

Fabrication and modification of homemade paper-based electrode systems

This work reports the simple and inexpensive fabrication of homemade paper-based carbon-printed electrodes (HP C-PEs), aiming to produce an alternative way to generate electrochemical biosensors to all and promoting their wide use. This is especially important in times of pandemics, considering the excellent features of electrochemical biosensing, which may ensure portability, low-cost and quick responses. HP C-PEs were fabricated using a standard cellulose filter paper that was first modified with wax, to make it hydrophobic. Then, the electrodes were manually printed on top of this cellulose/wax substrate. The electrodes were designed by having standard configurations for potentiometric and electrochemical readings, combining two or three electrodes. In general, both electrode systems showed excellent electrochemical and mechanical features, which were better in specific cases than commercial devices. The 3-electrode system displayed high current levels with low peak-to-peak potential separation, yielding highly stable signals after consecutive electrode bending that corresponded to high active areas. The possibility of modifying the devices with polymers produced in-situ was also explored and proven successful, providing also advantageous features when compared to other devices. The 2-electrode system was also proven highly stable and capable of subsequent use in potentiometric sensing development. Overall, the fabrication process of the 2- and 3-electode systems described herein may be employed in laboratories to produce successful electrochemical biosensors, with the final devices displaying excellent electrochemical and mechanical features. This procedure offers the advantages of being simple and inexpensive, when compared to other commercial devices, while using materials that are promptly available and that may undergo a worldwide use.

Electrodeposition of silver onto carbon graphite and their catalysis properties toward thiamethoxam reduction: application in food and beverage samples

The purpose of this paper is the electrodeposition of silver particles on graphite electrode (Ag@GrCE) using chronoamperometry and the use of this electrode for the determination of thiamethoxam. The electrode was prepared by chronoamperometry and characterized by X-Ray diffraction (XRD), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), EDX analysis and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The obtained electrode exhibits excellent electrocatalytic activity toward thiamethoxam reduction. The voltammetric response was linear as function of TXM concentration with a limit of detection around to 1.92 × 10⁻⁶ mol L⁻¹. The proposed electrode was successfully used to analyze thiamethoxam residue in some food samples including orange and tomato juices.

Paracetamol Sensing with a Pencil Lead Electrode Modified with Carbon Nanotubes and Polyvinylpyrrolidone

The determination of paracetamol is a common need in pharmaceutical and environmental samples for which a low-cost, rapid, and accurate sensor would be highly desirable. We develop a novel pencil graphite lead electrode (PGE) modified with single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) polymer (PVP/SWCNT/PGE) for the voltammetric quantification of paracetamol. The sensor shows remarkable analytical performance in the determination of paracetamol at neutral pH, with a limit of detection of 0.38 μM and a linear response from 1 to 500 μM using square-wave voltammetry (SWV), which are well suited to the analysis of pharmaceutical preparations. The introduction of the polymer PVP can cause dramatic changes in the sensing performance of the electrode, depending on its specific architecture. These effects were investigated using cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results indicate that the co-localization and dispersion of PVP throughout the carbon nanotubes on the electrode are key to its superior electrochemical performance, facilitating the electrical contact between the nanotubes and with the electrode surface. The application of this sensor to commercial syrup and tablet preparations is demonstrated with excellent results.

Real time detection and monitoring of 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine in industrial effluents and water bodies by electrochemical approach based on novel conductive polymeric composite

Much attention has been given to detection and monitoring of hydrazine-based compounds in recent time because of its significant negative impacts on human health and ecosystem (aquatic lives). This prompted the current study focusing on detection of 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2, 4-dnphz) using electrochemically synthesized poly-para amino benzoic acid-manganese oxide (P-pABA-MnO₂) composite film. The synthesized P-pABA-MnO₂ composite film was characterized in terms of its structural and morphological properties by X-ray diffraction spectroscopy and field emission scanning electron microscopy respectively. In addition, functionalities and binding energy of p-PABA-MnO2 were confirmed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy respectively. Finally, electrochemical properties were investigated using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry. The synthesized P-pABA-MnO₂ displayed good electrocatalytic reduction property towards 2, 4-dnphz with ultra-low limit of detection (0.08 μM; S/N = 3) and very high sensitivity (52 μAμ^-1Mcm^-2). The proposed sensor based on P-pABA-MnO₂ also demonstrated good stability in terms of repeatability, reproducibility and interferents effects. Lastly, the proposed sensor was satisfactorily used in detection of 2, 4-dnphz in environmental real samples.

Green and Traditional Synthesis of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles-Comparative Study

The current study compared the synthesis, characterization and properties of copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO) based on green and traditional chemical methods. The synthesized CuO were confirmed by spectroscopic and morphological characterization such as ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, zeta potential, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersed X-ray (EDX). Electrochemical behavior of the modified electrodes was done using cyclic voltammetry (CV) in ferricyanide/ferrocyanide ([Fe(CN)6]4-/[Fe(CN)6]3-) redox probe. As revealed by UV spectrophotometer, the absorption peaks ranged from 290-293 nm for all synthesized nanoparticles. Based on SEM images, CuO were spherical in shape with agglomerated particles. Zeta potential revealed that the green CuO have more negative surface charge than the chemically synthesized CuO. The potential of the green synthesized nanoparticles was higher relative to the chemically synthesized one. Cyclic voltammetry studies indicated that the traditional chemically synthesized CuO and the green CuO have electrocatalytic activity towards the ferricyanide redox probe. This suggests that the green CuO can be modified with other nanomaterials for the preparation of electrochemical sensors towards analytes of interest.

Nanostructured pencil graphite electrodes for application as high power biocathodes in miniaturized biofuel cells and bio-batteries

This work describes a simple method for the fabrication of an enzymatic electrode with high sensitivity to oxygen and good performance when applied as biocathode. Pencil graphite electrodes (PGE) were chosen as disposable transducers given their availability and good electrochemical response. After electrochemical characterization regarding hardness and surface pre-treatment suited modification with carbon-based nanostructures, namely with reduced graphene, MWCNT and carbon black for optimal performance was proceeded. The bioelectrode was finally assembled through immobilization of bilirubin oxidase (BOx) lashed on the modified surface of MWCNT via π-π stacking and amide bond functionalization. The high sensitivity towards dissolved oxygen of 648 ± 51 µA mM-1 cm-2, and a LOD of 1.7 µM, was achieved for the PGE with surface previously modified with reduced graphene (rGO), almost the double registered for direct anchorage on the bare PGE surface. Polarization curves resulted in an open circuit potential (OCP) of 1.68 V (vs Zn electrode) and generated a maximum current density of about 650 μA cm-2 in O2 saturated solution.

Facile and Fast Detection of Genistein in Derris scandens by Square Wave Voltammetry using a Cobalt(II) Phthalocyanine-Modified Screen-Printed Electrochemical Sensor

Background:

Recently, Derris scandens, a Thai herbal medicine with anti-inflammatory activity, is widely used as beverage and supplementary food. When the traditional medicine is a choice for health therapy, the simple and reliable equipment is required to control the suitable consuming amount of the active component.

Objective:

To develop the electrochemical sensor for genistein determination in Derris scandens with high sensitivity and rapid operation.

Methods:

An in-house screen-printed electrochemical sensor consisting of a three-electrode system was developed for genistein determination. A silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) reference electrode, a carbon counter electrode and a carbon working electrode were prepared on a 0.3-mm-thick plastic substrate by the screen-printing technique using conductive ink. The dimensions of each sensor were 2.5×1.0 cm. Only 50 µL of sample solution was required on this device for the determination of genistein concentration by rapid response square wave voltammetry.

Results:

The oxidation peak of genistein appeared with good response in acidic media at a peak potential of 0.6 V. Moreover, the signal was enhanced by modifying the conductive carbon ink with cobalt( II) phthalocyanine. Under the optimized conditions, the linear range was found to be 2.5-150 µM and the detection limit was 1.5 µM. Moreover, the small volume extraction was successfully developed without any further pre-concentration. This proposed method was applied to determine genistein in Derris scandens with satisfying results.

Conclusion:

The proposed method is promising as an alternative method for genistein determination with facile and fast analysis.

Homopolymerization of 3-aminobenzoic acid for enzyme-free electrocatalytic assay of nitrite ions

We describe non-enzymatic novel detection of nitrite ions in various matrices on the surface of poly-3-aminobenzoic acid.

Enhanced electrocatalytic activity of cobalt phthalocyanines when “clicked” to graphene oxide nanosheets

Alkyne-terminated Co phthalocyanine (CoPc) derivatives are linked to reduced graphene oxide nanosheets (GONS) via click chemistry and the conjugates are used for the electrocatalytic oxidation of 2-mercaptoethanol. CoPc derivatives where the alkyne group is separated from the Pc ring by an aliphatic and benzene ring (complex 3) showed the best catalytic activity (in terms of oxidation potential) in comparison to when only aliphatic chains were employed without the benzene ring (complex 2) and when there were no substituents (complex 1). The anodic oxidation of 2-mercaptoethanol on 3-GONS (linked) occurred at the least positive oxidation potential (-0.22 V vs. Ag|AgCl). 3-GONS (linked) was found to have the highest sensitivity with the lowest limit of detection of 0.08 [Formula: see text]M. When the CoPc derivative and GONS were not linked but placed sequentially on the electrode, the electrocatalytic activity (in terms of LOD) was poorer than when linked. The electrodes modified with CoPc clicked to GONS are highly promising electrochemical sensors in terms of stability, sensitivity, good catalytic activity and ease of fabrication.

Electrocatalytic behavior of single walled carbon nanotubes with alkylthio-substituted cobalt binuclear phthalocyanines towards oxidation of 4-chlorophenols

This work describes the adsorption of synthesized cobalt mono (CoPc) and binuclear phthalocyanines (CoBiPc) with single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) to form SWCNT-CoPc or SWCNT-CoBiPc as non-covalent conjugates onto glassy carbon electrodes (GCE). The cobalt complexes and their SWCNT-conjugate-modified electrodes were studied for their electrocatalytic oxidation towards 4-chlorophenol. All modified electrodes showed improved catalytic current and stability towards the detection of 4-chlorophenol. The best activity was observed for the SWCNT-CoBiPc2 system in terms of current response and the SWCNT-CoBiPc1 system in terms of resistance to electrode fouling.

Efficacious Electrochemical Oxygen Evolution from a Novel Co(II) Porphyrin/Pyrene-Based Conjugated Microporous Polymer

Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is energetically challenging from the platform of making many photovoltaic devices such as metal-air batteries and water splitting systems because of its poor kinetics even when precious metals are used. Herein, a Co(II)-porphyrin/pyrene-comprised conjugated microporous polymer Co-MPPy-1 has been developed which shows efficient OER in alkaline medium. The material was characterized by Fourier transform infrared, solid-state ¹³C cross-polarization magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance, N₂ volumetric adsorption/desorption analysis, scanning electron microscopy, ultra high resolution-transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and other physical studies. Co-MPPy-1 showed Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area of ∼501 m² g^-1. Co-MPPy-1 achieved a current density of 1 and 10 mA/cm^-2 at 340 and 420 mV, respectively. The turnover frequency calculated for the OER is 0.43 s^-1. The heterogeneity of this electrocatalyst was tested by chronoamperometric measurement and 1000 cycle recyclability test with retainment of the excellent electrochemical catalytic activity. This can be attributed to the presence of high density of Co(II) porphyrin unit and efficient charge transport in the π-conductive conjugated polymeric backbone.

Iron Phthalocyanine Decorated Nitrogen-Doped Graphene Biosensing Platform for Real-Time Detection of Nitric Oxide Released from Living Cells

Nitric oxide (NO) is a transcellular messenger involved in many physiological and pathological processes, but the real-time detection of NO in biological systems is still challenging due to its rapid diffusion, low concentration, and short half-life. A novel electrochemical sensing platform based on iron phthalocyanine (FePc) functionalized nitrogen-doped graphene (N-G) nanocomposites was constructed to achieve in situ monitoring of NO released from living cells on the sensing layer. By taking advantage of the synergetic effect of N-G and FePc nanocomposites, the N-G/FePc sensor displays excellent electrocatalytic activity toward NO with a high sensitivity of 0.21 μA μM^-1 cm^-2 and a low detection limit of 180 nmol L^-1. The following layer-by-layer assembly of poly-l-lysine (PLL) and Nafion further improved the capacity of resisting disturbance as well as the biocompatibility of the sensing interface. The flexible design of the ITO substrate based electrode provides a more controlled cellular biosensing system which could capture molecular signals immediately after NO released from human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The exhibited additional features of high sensitivity, rapid response, and ease of operation implies that the proposed N-G/FePc/Nafion/PLL ITO biosensor is a promising powerful platform in various complex biological systems.

A polyamidoamine dendrimer-streptavidin supramolecular architecture for biosensor development

A novel polyamidoamine dendrimer-streptavidin supramolecular architecture suitable as a versatile platform for biosensor development is reported. The dendrimer was electrodeposited on a glassy carbon electrode via cyclic voltammetry. The dendrimer electrode was further modified with streptavidin by electrostatic attraction upon drop coating. The platform i.e. the dendrimer-streptavidin modified electrode was electrochemically interrogated in phosphate buffer, ferrocyanide and H₂O₂. The dendrimer-streptavidin platform was used in the preparation of a simple DNA biosensor as a proof of concept. The supramolecular architecture of dendrimer-streptavidin was stable, electroactive and thus lends itself as a versatile immobilisation layer for any biotinylated bioreceptors in biosensor development.

Platinum black electrodeposited thread based electrodes for dielectrophoretic assembly of microparticles

We report dielectrophoretic (DEP) assembly of biological cells and microparticles using platinum-black electrodeposited conductive textile fiber. The three-dimensional conductive structures with high aspect ratios were found to facilitate high electric field regions, as revealed by scanning electron microscope characterization. The effective conducting area (Aeff) and its stability of thread electrodes were estimated using electrochemical methods. Potential of platinum black electrodeposited thread as 3-D electrodes for creating high gradient electrical field for dielectrophoretic assembly of microspheres and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast cells) into 1D and two-dimensional structures over long ranges under the application of low voltages (4-10 Vpp) has been demonstrated. The formation of highly ordered pearl chains of microparticles using thread electrodes when subjected to dielectrophoresis (DEP) has been discussed in detail.

Effect of the aromatic precursor flow rate on the morphology and properties of carbon nanostructures in plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition

Understanding the effects of the synthesis parameters on the morphology and electrochemical properties of nanocarbon layers is a key step in the development of application-tailored nanostructures.