Promethazine determination in plasma samples by using carbon paste electrode modified with molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP): Coupling of extraction, preconcentration and electrochemical determination

Eco-friendly electrochemical sensor for determination of conscious sedating drug "midazolam'' based on Au-NPs@Silica modified carbon paste electrode

Benzodiazepines (BZDs) are a group of drugs prescribed for their sedating effect. Their misuse and addictive properties stipulate different authorities for developing simple, fast and accurate analytical methods for instantaneous detection. Differential pulse voltammetric technique (DPV) was utilized for the selective assay of midazolam hydrochloride (MDZ) in the pure, parenteral dosage forms and plasma samples. A chemically modified carbon paste electrode (CPE) was implemented during the study. The method depended on the electroreduction of MDZ on the surface of the electrode over a potential range of 0.0 V to -1.6 V. The electrode was fabricated using silica nanoparticles (Si-NPs) which were incorporated into the composition of the CPE and used to enhance the electrode performance. Then, to enhance the sensitivity of the method, a chronoamperometric modification step was applied for depositing gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) on the carbon paste electrode surface. Modification with Au-NPs showed a higher reduction current peak for MDZ with well-defined peaks. Various parameters such as pH of the media and measurements scan rate were investigated and optimized to enhance the sensor sensitivity. The sensor showed a dynamic linear response over a concentration range of 4.0 × 10-7 M to 2.9 × 10-4 M of MDZ with a LOD of 2.24 × 10-8 M using 0.1 M acetate buffer (pH 5.6). The sensor was validated in accordance with the ICH guidelines regarding accuracy, precision and specificity for the selective assay of MDZ in the presence of excipients. A greenness evaluation was performed using three different assessment tools, namely, the "Green Analytical Procedure Index" (GAPI), the "Analytical Greenness metric" (AGREE) and the "Whiteness Analytical Chemistry tool" (WAC) using the RGB12 model.

A highly selective and sensitive sensor for promethazine based on molecularly imprinted interface coated Au/Sn bimetal nanoclusters functionalized acupuncture needle microelectrode

Promethazine (PMZ) is an effective antihistamine that is used as a nerve tranquilizer to treat mental disorders. However, drug abuse causes harm to the human body and also pollutes the environment to a certain extent. Therefore, it is crucial to develop a highly selective and sensitive biosensor for PMZ determination. An acupuncture needle (AN) was used as an electrode in 2015, and further research on the electrode's essence in electrochemistry is needed. In this work, a sensor based on a surface imprinted film coordinated Au/Sn biometal was first fabricated on AN via electrochemistry. The obtained cavities showed complementary and suitable sites for "N atom" electron transfer through the phenyl ring structure in promethazine, which is rigorous for the configuration near the interface. Under the optimal conditions, MIP/Au/Sn/ANE exhibits a good linear relationship in the range of 0.5 μM-500 μM, and the detection limit (LOD) is 0.14 μM (S/N = 3). The sensor exhibits good repeatability, stability, and selectivity and can be successfully used to analyze and detect PMZ in human serum and environmental water. The findings are scientifically significant for AN electrochemistry and the sensors have potential for in vivo medicamentosus monitoring in the future.

Enzyme-free colorimetric sensor based on molecularly imprinted polymer and ninhydrin for methamphetamine detection

Digital image colorimetry was applied to introduce a rapid, portable, and non-enzymatic test for methamphetamine measurements in urine. Imprinted polymer was synthesized in a simple, low-cost process and utilized for selective extraction of analyte from the sample in combination with the well-known ninhydrin color test. Applying the digital camera on a mobile phone, RGB basic color data were obtained, and calibration curves were developed for different concentrations of methamphetamine. Optimization of the test condition was carried out by changing some effective parameters such as extraction time and pH. The results were compared with some similar structural compounds indicating great potential for use as a selective and semi-quantitative field test for this drug. An acceptable linear range (5-100 μM) and detection limit (1.44 μM) as well as good agreement with the reference method, makes this fast portable method, an easy and reliable test for the analysis of methamphetamine in biological samples.

Fabricating BiOCl/BiVO4 nanosheets wrapped in a graphene oxide heterojunction composite for detection of an antihistamine in biological samples

Antibiotics are essential medications for human and animal health, as they are used to battle urinary infections and bacterial diseases. Therefore, the rapid determination of antibiotic drugs in biological samples is necessary to address the current clinical challenge. Here, we developed a heterojunction ternary composite of BiOCl/BiVO₄ nanosheets enriched with graphene oxide (BiOCl/BiVO₄@GO) for accurate and minimal-level detection of an antihistamine (promethazine hydrochloride, PMZ) in urine samples. The BiOCl/BiVO₄ nanosheets were prepared by a wet chemical approach using a deep eutectic green solvent. The spectroscopic and analytical methods verified the formation and interaction of the BiOCl/BiVO₄@GO composite. Our results showed that the thoroughly exfoliated BiOCl/BiVO₄@GO composite retained good electrical conductivity and fast charge transfer toward the electrode-electrolyte interface in neutral aqueous media. In addition, the experimental conditions were accurately optimized, and the BiOCl/BiVO₄@GO composite showed excellent electrocatalytic activity toward the oxidation of PMZ. Indeed, the BiOCl/BiVO₄@GO composite demonstrated a good linear response range (0.01-124.7 μM) and a detection level of 3.3 nM with a sensitivity of 1.586 μA μM^-1 cm^-2. In addition, the BiOCl/BiVO₄@GO composite had excellent storage stability, good reproducibility, and reliable selectivity. Finally, the BiOCl/BiVO₄@GO displayed a desirable recovery level of PMZ in urine samples for real-time monitoring.

Gold nanoparticles capped with polysaccharides extracted from pineapple gum: Evaluation of their hemocompatibility and electrochemical sensing properties

In the present work, gold nanoparticles were synthesized through a green route by using, for the first time, polysaccharides extracted from pineapple gum (PG) as the reducing and capping agent. The obtained nanoparticles (AuNPs-PG) were characterized by UV-VIS, FTIR, TEM, FESEM, EDX, XRD, and zeta potential measurements, which confirmed that PG was effective to produce AuNPs with an average diameter of 10.3 ± 1.6 nm. The AuNPs-PG were employed as the modifier of glassy carbon paste electrodes (CPE/AuNPs-PG), which were applied as sensitive electrochemical sensors to the determination of the antihistamine drug promethazine hydrochloride (PMZ). Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements showed that the AuNPs-PG could enhance the electronic transfer properties of the glassy carbon paste, which was due to their large surface area and high electrical conductivity. After optimization of the instrumental parameters of square wave voltammetry (SWV) through a Box-Behnken factorial design, a linear relationship between the anodic peak current and PMZ concentration was obtained in the range from 2.0 to 15.7 μmol L^-1 in McIlvaine buffer solution pH 5.0. The detection and quantification limits were found to be equal to 1.33 and 4.44 μmol L^-1, respectively. The developed sensors could successfully quantify PMZ in different commercial pharmaceutical formulations, with satisfactory levels of accuracy and precision. In addition to improving the analytical features of the electrodes, hemocompatibility assays carried out on erythrocytes and leukocytes showed that the AuNPs-PG do not exhibit toxic effects on the referred cells. This interesting behavior enables their use in biocompatible electrochemical sensing platforms as well as for future biomedical investigations.

Subnanomolar detection of promethazine abuse using a gold nanoparticle-graphene nanoplatelet-modified electrode

A simple, sensitive, and effective adsorptive stripping voltammetric sensor for the detection of trace-level promethazine was created based on a gold nanoparticle-graphene nanoplatelet-modified glassy carbon electrode (AuNP-GrNP/GCE). AuNP-GrNP nanocomposites were synthesized using an electroless deposition process, and the morphology was characterized using UV-vis spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The electrochemical behavior and detection of promethazine at the AuNP-GrNP/GCE were investigated utilizing cyclic voltammetry and adsorptive stripping voltammetry. The AuNP-GrNP/GCE showed outstanding synergistic electrochemical activity for promethazine oxidation, a highly active surface area, great adsorptivity, and outstanding catalytic properties. The electrolyte pH, amount of AuNP-GrNP nanocomposite, preconcentration potential (vs. Ag/AgCl), and time were optimized to obtain a high performance electrochemical sensor. Under optimal conditions, the proposed sensor displayed two linear concentration ranges from 1.0 nmol L^-1 to 1.0 μmol L^-1 and from 1.0 to 10 μmol L^-1. The limits of detection and quantitation were 0.40 and 1.4 nmol L^-1, respectively. This sensor displayed high sensitivity, a capability for rapid analysis, and excellent repeatability and reproducibility. The developed sensor was effective and practical for promethazine detection in biological fluids and forensic samples, and the obtained results exhibited excellent agreement with the results obtained using the method described in the British Pharmacopoeia. Graphical abstract.

Ultrasonication-aided synthesis of nanoplates-like iron molybdate: Fabricated over glassy carbon electrode as an modified electrode for the selective determination of first generation antihistamine drug promethazine hydrochloride

The innovation of novel and proficient nanostructured materials for the precise level determination of pharmaceuticals in biological fluids is quite crucial to the researchers. With this in mind, we synthesized iron molybdate nanoplates (Fe₂(MoO₄)₃; FeMo NPs) via simple ultrasonic-assisted technique (70 kHz with a power of 100 W). The FeMo NPs were used as the efficient electrocatalyst for electrochemical oxidation of first-generation antihistamine drug- Promethazine hydrochloride (PMH). The as-synthesized FeMo NPs were characterized and confirmed by various characterization techniques such as XRD, Raman, FT-IR, FE-SEM, EDX and Elemental mapping analysis and electron impedance spectroscopy (EIS). In addition, the electrochemical characteristic features of FeMo NPs were scrutinized by electrochemical techniques like cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry technique (DPV). Interestingly, the developed FeMo NPs modified glassy carbon electrode (FeMo NPs/GCE) discloses higher peak current with lesser anodic potential on comparing to bare GCE including wider linear range (0.01-68.65 µM), lower detection limit (0.01 µM) and greater sensitivity (0.97 µAµM^-1cm^-2). Moreover, the as-synthesized FeMo NPs applied for selectivity, reproducibility, repeatability and storage ability to investigate the practical viability. In the presence of interfering species like cationic, anionic and biological samples, the oxidation peak current response doesn't cause any variation results disclose good selectivity towards the detection of PMH. Additionally, the practical feasibility of the FeMo NPs/GCE was tested by real samples like, commercial tablet (Phenergan 25 mg Tablets) and lake water samples which give satisfactory recovery results. All the above consequences made clear that the proposed sensor FeMo NPs/GCE exhibits excellent electrochemical behavior for electrochemical determination towards oxidation of antihistamine drug PMH.

Facile one-pot sonochemical synthesis of Ni doped bismuth sulphide for the electrochemical determination of promethazine hydrochloride

The present work reports the facile and cost-effective synthesis of rod like structured nickel doped bismuth sulphide (Ni-Bi₂S₃) via the ultrasonication process. The sonochemical synthesis technique is rapid, simple, non-explosive, and harmless than other conventional synthesis technique. After the synthesis, the resultant material was characterized through the various spectrophotometric techniques including FESEM, EDX, XRD, XPS and EIS. After the structural evaluation, as-synthesized Ni-Bi₂S₃ was applied for the electrocatalytic detection of promethazine hydrochloride (PMTZ) using CV and amperometry (i-t) techniques. Captivatingly, excellent electrocatalytic performance with the wider linear range from 1 nM to 163.17 µM was obtained for the electrochemical determination of PMTZ. The limit of detection (LOD) and sensitivity calculated around 0.4 nM and 2.904 μA µM^-1 cm^-2, respectively. Besides, an excellent selectivity, satisfactory reproducibility and good stability of the Ni-Bi₂S₃ modified electrode were checked towards the electrochemical determination of PMTZ. Furthermore, the real time application of PMTZ sensor was established in human serum and urine samples.

Electrochemical Analysis of Antipsychotics

Introduction:

Schizophrenia is seizures accompanied by severe psychotic symptoms, and a steady state of continuation in the form of periods of stagnation. Antipsychotics are now the basis of treatment for schizophrenia and there is no other molecule that is antipsychotic priority in treatment. Antipsychotics can be classified into two groups; dopamine receptor antagonists such as promazine, fluphenazine etc. and serotonin-dopamine antagonists including risperidone, olanzapine, ziprasidone, aripiprazole etc.

Materials and Methods:

Electrochemical methods have been used for the determination of antipsychotic agent just as used in the determination of many drug agents. Nearly all of the antipsychotics are electroactive and can be analyzed by electrochemical methods. Electroanalytical methods offer generally high sensitivity, are compatible with modern techniques, have low cost, low requirements, and compact design. Among the most commonly used types, there are cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, square wave voltammetry and linear sweep voltammetry.

Conclusion:

The aim of this review is to evaluate the main line and the advantages and uses of electroanalytical methods that employed for the determination of antipsychotic medication agents used in schizophrenia. Moreover, applications of the methods to pharmaceutical analysis of Antipsychotics upto- date is also summarized in a table.

A ferrocene/imprinted polymer nanomaterial-modified carbon paste electrode as a new generation of gate effect-based voltammetric sensor

Herein, a carbon paste electrode, concurrently incorporated with ferrocene and a molecularly imprinted polymer nanomaterial (Fc-MIP-CP electrode), is introduced as an innovative sensing platform for the detection of thiamine.

Core-shell magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers as sorbent for sulfonylurea herbicide residues

Sulfonylurea herbicides are widely used at lower dosage for controlling broad-leaf weeds and some grasses in cereals and economic crops. It is important to develop a highly efficient and selective pretreatment method for analyzing sulfonylurea herbicide residues in environments and samples from agricultural products based on magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs). The MIPs were prepared by a surface molecular imprinting technique especially using the vinyl-modified Fe3O4@SiO2 nanoparticle as the supporting matrix, bensulfuron-methyl (BSM) as the template molecule, methacrylic acid (MAA) as a functional monomer, trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate (TRIM) as a cross-linker, and azodiisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as an initiator. The MIPs show high affinity, recognition specificity, fast mass transfer rate, and efficient adsorption performance toward BSM with the adsorption capacity reaching up to 37.32 mg g(-1). Furthermore, the MIPs also showed cross-selectivity for herbicides triasulfuron (TS), prosulfuron (PS), and pyrazosulfuron-ethyl (PSE). The MIP solid phase extraction (SPE) column was easier to operate, regenerate, and retrieve compared to those of C18 SPE column. The developed method showed highly selective separation and enrichment of sulfonylurea herbicide residues, which enable its application in the pretreatment of multisulfonylurea herbicide residues.

A high selective and sensitive method for the detection of six psychotropic drugs in human urine by high performance liquid chromatography combined with resonance Rayleigh scattering spectra

A highly selective and sensitive method of high performance liquid chromatography combined with resonance Rayleigh scattering spectra was developed for the detection of six psychotropic drugs: Doxepin, Promethazine, Imipramine, Amitriptyline, Chlorpromazine and Clomipramine.

Amperometric determination of promethazine in tablets using an electrochemically reduced graphene oxide modified electrode

Graphene films were prepared on a glassy carbon electrode for amperometric determination of promethazine hydrochloride in pharmaceutical products.

Molecular imprinting science and technology: a survey of the literature for the years 2004-2011

Herein, we present a survey of the literature covering the development of molecular imprinting science and technology over the years 2004-2011. In total, 3779 references to the original papers, reviews, edited volumes and monographs from this period are included, along with recently identified uncited materials from prior to 2004, which were omitted in the first instalment of this series covering the years 1930-2003. In the presentation of the assembled references, a section presenting reviews and monographs covering the area is followed by sections describing fundamental aspects of molecular imprinting including the development of novel polymer formats. Thereafter, literature describing efforts to apply these polymeric materials to a range of application areas is presented. Current trends and areas of rapid development are discussed.

Preparation of Dufulin imprinted polymer on surface of silica gel and its application as solid-phase extraction sorbent

A new molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) based on silica-gel surface was developed using Dufulin (Duf) as a template, methacrylic acid (MAA) as a functional monomer, ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) as a crosslinker, and azodiisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as an initiator. The synthetic samples were characterized by the techniques of Fourier transmission infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Batch experiments were performed to evaluate adsorption isotherms, adsorption kinetics and selective recognition of the MIP. Binding experiments demonstrated that the MIP had a good adsorption capacity, fast mass transfer rate and high recognition selectivity to Dufulin. When the MIP was used as a solid-phase extraction (SPE) material, the recoveries of Dufulin for spiked water, soil and wheat samples were 88.98-102.16%, 85.31-99.57% and 87.84-100.19%, along with LOD of 0.0008 mg L(-1), 0.010 mg kg(-1) and 0.023 mg kg(-1), respectively. Compared with direct determination of HPLC without MIP-SPE, the highly selective separation and enrichment of Dufulin from the complex environmental media can be achieved by the newly developed molecular imprinting at the surface of silica gel.

[Simultaneous determination of chlorpromazine and promethazine and their main metabolites by capillary electrophoresis with electrochemiluminescence]

Based on the phenomenon that each of chlorpromazine (CPZ), promethazine (PMZ), chlorpromazine sulfoxide (CPZSO) and promethazine sulfoxide (PMZSO) could enhance the electrochemiluminescence (ECL) intensity of tris(2,2'-bipyridyl) ruthenium, a novel and sensitive method was proposed for the simultaneous determination of CPZ, PMZ and their main metabolites using capillary electrophoresis (CE) coupled with ECL detection. The influences of several experimental parameters were explored. The optimum experimental conditions were as follows: detection potential of 1. 20 V (Ag/AgCl), 40 mmol/L of phosphate buffer solution (pH 6.5) containing 5 mmol/L tris(2,2'-bipyridyl) ruthenium in ECL detection cell, running buffer solution of 18 mmol/L (pH 4.8), sample injection of 8 s at 11 kV, and separation voltage of 13.5 kV. The detection limits (3sigma) of this method were 8.3 x 10(-7) g/L for CPZ, 7.2 x 10(-6) g/L for PMZ, 1.9 x 10(-5) g/L for CPZSO and 3.7 x 10(-6) g/L for PMZSO. The linear ranges of ECL intensity versus mass concentration of medicaments were 7. 1 x 10(-6) - 6. 3 x 10(-3) g/L for CPZ, 7.5 x 10(-5) - 4.6 x 10(-3) g/L for PMZ, 9.7 x 10(-5) - 3.6 x 10(-3) g/L for CPZSO and 8.1 x 10(-5) - 7.7 x 10(-3) g/L for PMZSO. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) of the four target compounds were not more than 3% for ECL intensity and 1% for migration time. This method has the merits of simplicity, speediness, sensitivity, small sample injection, and free from interference. This method was successfully utilized to directly and simultaneously detect CPZ, PMZ, CPZSO and PMZSO in urine samples of pet dogs.

Synthesis and evaluation of uniformly sized nalidixic acid-imprinted nanospheres based on precipitation polymerization method for analytical and biomedical applications

For the first time in this work, uniform molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) nanoparticles were prepared using nalidixic acid as a template. The MIP nanoparticles were successfully synthesized by precipitation polymerization applying methacrylic acid (MAA) as a functional monomer and trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate (TRIM) as a cross-linking monomer at different mole ratios. The morphology, binding, recognition, selectivity, and in vitro release behaviors of obtained particles were studied. The produced polymers were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetric. Furthermore, their morphology was analyzed accurately by scanning electron microscopy, photon correlation spectroscopy, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis. The nanospheres and microspheres with mean diameter values of 94 nm, 256 nm, and 1.2 µm were obtained using nalidixic acid-MAA-TRIM various mole ratios. Among the MIPs, the product with nalidixic acid-MAA-TRIM mole ratio of 1:12:12 established nanospheres with the lowest polydispersity index (0.003), an average pore diameter (12 nm), and the highest specific surface area (280 m(2) g(-1)) and selectivity factor (10.4). Results from binding experiments demonstrated that the imprinted nanospheres with a 94-nm mean diameter and a binding capacity of 28 mg of nalidixic acid per gram of polymer had higher specific affinity to nalidixic acid in contrast with the other imprinted nanospheres, microspheres, and nonimprinted particles. However, the binding performance of imprinted nanospheres in human serum was estimated using high-performance liquid chromatography analysis (binding approximately 98% of nalidixic acid). In addition, release experiments proved to be successful in the controlled release of nalidixic acid during a long period. The 20% of loaded nalidixic acid was released from the imprinted nanospheres within the first 20 h, whereas the remaining 80% was released in the after 120 h. The nalidixic acid release kinetics from the MIPs was highly affected by properties of the particles.

Preparation of nano-sized Pb2+ imprinted polymer and its application as the chemical interface of an electrochemical sensor for toxic lead determination in different real samples

In this work, a new nano-structured ion imprinted polymer (IIP) was synthesized by copolymerization of methacrylic acid-Pb(2+) complex and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate according to the precipitation polymerization. Methacrylic acid acted as both functional monomer and complexing agent to create selective coordination sites in a cross-linked polymer. A carbon paste electrode modified with IIP-nanoparticles was used for fabrication of a Pb(2+) sensitive electrode. Differential pulse stripping voltammetry method was applied as the determination technique, after open circuit sorption of Pb(2+) on the electrode and its reduction to metallic form. The IIP modified electrode showed a considerably higher response, compared to the electrode embedded with non-imprinted polymer (NIP). This indicated that the suitable recognition sites were created in the IIP structure in the polymerization stage. Various factors, effective on the response behavior of the electrode, were investigated and optimized. The introduced sensor showed a linear range of 1.0 × 10(-9) to 8.1 × 10(-7)M and detection limit of 6.0 × 10(-10)M (S/N=3). The sensor was successfully applied for the trace lead determination in different samples.

Determination of trace formaldehyde in blood plasma by resonance fluorescence technology

A novel method for the determination of trace formaldehyde in blood plasma has been established by using resonance fluorimetry technique. It was based on the fact that oxidation of pyronine Y by potassium bromate was catalyzed by formaldehyde in sulfuric acid. When the wavelength interval was at Δλ=0 nm, it was found that the decreased intensity (ΔF) of resonance fluorescence at 574.6 nm was proportional to the concentration of formaldehyde in the range of 1.27×10(-2) to 2.28 μg mL(-1). The limit of detection and the average recovery for formaldehyde were 3.80 ng mL(-1) and 101.6% (n=6), respectively. The present method had been applied to the determination of trace formaldehyde in blood plasma, and the obtained results were in good agreement with those obtained by the resonance light scattering method.