Organohalogen compounds in human breast milk from Republic of Buryatia, Russia

Has Regulatory Action Reduced Human Exposure to Flame Retardants?

Flame retardant (FR) exposure has been linked to several environmental and human health effects. Because of this, the production and use of several FRs are regulated globally. We reviewed the available records of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDDs) in human breast milk from literature to evaluate the efficacy of regulation to reduce the exposure of FRs to humans. Two-hundred and seven studies were used for analyses to determine the spatial and temporal trends of FR exposure. North America consistently had the highest concentrations of PBDEs, while Asia and Oceania dominated HBCDD exposure. BDE-49 and -99 indicated decreasing temporal trends in most regions. BDE-153, with a longer half-life than the aforementioned isomers, typically exhibited a plateau in breast milk levels. No conclusive trend could be established for HBCDD, and insufficient information was available to determine a temporal trend for BDE-209. Breakpoint analyses indicated a significant decrease in BDE-47 and -99 in Europe around the time that regulation has been implemented, suggesting a positive effect of regulation on FR exposure. However, very few studies have been conducted globally (specifically in North America) after 2013, during the time when the most recent regulations have been implemented. This meta-analysis provides insight into global trends in human exposure to PBDEs and HBCDD, but the remaining uncertainty highlights the need for ongoing evaluation and monitoring, even after a compound group is regulated.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in human breast milk from Colombia: A probabilistic risk assessment approach

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. They were produced in relatively large volumes in the last century and are now subject to long-term monitoring and regulated under the United Nations Stockholm Convention (SC) on persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Though restricted, human exposure is still a concern and in some regions of the globe the information on the health risk is limited. Sixty breast milk samples from nursing mothers were collected between 2014 and 2015, residing in Bogota, Cartagena, and Medellin, which are industrialized cities in Colombia. This is the first comprehensive study to determine the concentrations in breast milk of PBDEs (n = 7), PCBs (n = 29), and OCPs (n = 28) in Colombia. The detection frequency of POPs, including BDE-47, CB-138, CB-153, CB-156, and CB-180, as well as several OCPs such as chloroneb, aldrins, HCHs, DDTs, and heptachlor, was found to be 100% in all samples tested. The mean concentrations of the analyzed legacy POPs were ∑3DDTs (423 ng/g lw) > chloroneb (50.1 ng/g lw) > ∑2permetrins (17.5 ng/g lw) > ∑2aldrins (16.7 ng/g lw) > 29 PCBs (15.04 ng/g lw) > ∑2chlordanes (CHLs) (11.2 ng/g lw) ≈ ∑3endosulfans (11.1 ng/g lw) > ∑2heptachlors (2.43 ng/g lw) > 7PBDEs (2.1 ng/g lw) > ∑4HCHs (0.58 ng/g lw). The results of this study suggest that the concentrations of DDTs were present in breast milk samples from Colombia at levels comparable to those found in previous studies conducted in other countries such as Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, and various Asian countries. The concentrations of PBDE and PCB congeners, as well as many pesticides, were found to be significantly correlated with each other. This suggests that these substances may have similar sources of exposure. The strength of the pair correlation among concentrations of POPs was assessed using Spearman's correlation coefficients, which varied from r = 0.62 for the association between BDE-47 and CB-153, to a high correlation of 0.99 for the correlation between γ-Chlordane and heptachlor. This suggests that these POPs may share similar sources, such as diet. An exposure assessment model obtained by Monte Carlo simulation showed that infants were exposed to low concentrations of POPs with exception of p,p'-DDE and Aldrin, in which 25th, 50th and 95th percentiles were greater than the threshold reference values of non-carcinogenic effects suggested by US-EPA regulations while the 90th percentile of pg TEQ/Kg-bw/day for dl-PCBs was above of the tolerable daily intake (TDI) proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO). Therefore, the health risk of infants exposed to OCPs and dl-PCBs should be exanimated continually through biomonitoring programs in the Colombian population.

Organochlorine Pollutants in Human Breast Milk from North of the Far Eastern Region of Russia

The widespread application of pesticides in the territories of the former USSR still exerts negative impacts on their ecological status. In this regard, dedicated programs for monitoring persistent organic pollutants (POP) in humans are implemented in several countries. Our study aimed to assess the accumulation of organic pollutants in breast milk of women residing the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug (CAO). Organochlorine pesticides (OCP) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) concentrations in breast milk samples were measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The POP concentrations in the samples varied from 13 ng/g lipid weight (lw) to 620.6 ng/g lw (median 58.3 ng/g lw). An assessment of health risk to infants fed breast milk from CAO women did not show any exceedance of the estimated daily intake (EDI). The results obtained are the indirect evidence of the presence of these compounds in the environment and their negative effects on ecosystems and human health.

Organochlorine pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in serum of Beijing population: Exposure and health risk assessment

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widespread environmental contaminants, but large-scale human biomonitoring and health risk assessment data on these contaminants remain limited. In this study, concentrations of 6 OCPs and 5 PAHs were determined by GC-MS/MS in 1268 human serum samples which were collected from the participants in 2017 Beijing Chronic Disease and Risk Factor Surveillance. The detection frequencies of OCPs and PAHs ranged from 64.7 % to 96.5 % and 89.4 % to 99.6 %, respectively. The most abundant contaminants in OCPs and PAHs were pentachlorophenol (PCP) and pyrene (Pyr) with median concentrations reaching up to 3.13 and 8.48 μg/L, respectively. Nonparametric tests were employed to assess the correlations among contaminants levels, demographic characteristics (age, gender, body mass index, residence) and serum biochemical indexes. Significantly higher serum levels of all PAHs were observed in suburb residents than that in urban residents (P < 0.001). Binary logistic regression analysis demonstrated that exposure to benzo(a)pyrene (OR 2.17 [1.29, 3.63]), phenanthrene (OR 1.06 [1.02, 1.11]), fluoranthene (OR 1.04 [1.02, 1.07]) and Pyr (OR 1.02 [1.01, 1.03]) might increase the occurrence of hyperglycemia, and exposure to hexachlorobenzene (HCB) (OR 1.53 [1.05, 2.22]) and pentachlorobenzene (OR 1.14 [1.02, 1.27]) were positively associated with hyperlipidemia. Furthermore, the hazard quotients (HQs) for serum HCB, PCP and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene were calculated based on health-based guidance values to predict health risks. 0.2 % and 4.3 % of serum samples showed HQ values exceeding 1 for HCB and PCP, respectively, in case of the non-carcinogenic risk, while 23.1 % of HQs for HCB were above 1 in case of the carcinogenic risk for a risk level 10^-5. Our study reveals that the body burden of the Beijing general population relative to OCPs and PAHs was nonnegligible. The past exposure of HCB and PCP might adversely affect the health status of the Beijing population.

Profiles and determinants of dicofol, endosulfans, mirex, and toxaphenes in breast milk samples from 10 prefectures in Japan

Human exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is reflected by POP concentrations in breast milk. Many studies of POPs in breast milk have been performed in Japan, but insufficient information is available about some legacy POPs (e.g., mirex and toxaphenes, included in the Stockholm Convention in 2001) and novel POPs (e.g., dicofol and endosulfans, included in the Stockholm Convention in 2019 and 2011, respectively). In this study, dicofol, endosulfan, mirex, and toxaphene concentrations in breast milk from 10 prefectures in Japan were determined. The samples were collected between 2005 and 2010, before Stockholm Convention restrictions on endosulfans and mirex were implemented. Common POPs (e.g., polychlorinated biphenyls) were also analyzed to allow the contamination statuses to be compared. The α-endosulfan and β-endosulfan concentrations were 0.26-13 and 0.012-0.82 ng/g lipid, respectively. The toxaphene #26 and #50 concentrations were <0.08-5.6 and < 0.1-8.5 ng/g lipid, respectively. The dicofol concentrations were <0.01-4.8 ng/g lipid. The mirex concentrations were <0.2-3.5 ng/g lipid. The α- and β-endosulfan concentrations on a lipid weight basis negatively correlated with the lipid contents of the milk samples (ρ = -0.65, p < 0.01 for α-endosulfan; ρ = -0.58, p < 0.01 for β-endosulfan). The toxaphene concentrations positively correlated with the lipid contents. The mirex concentrations positively correlated with the maternal age but negatively correlated with the maternal body mass index. No correlations between the dicofol concentrations and the factors were found. Principal component analysis divided the data into four groups, (1) chlordanes, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes and related compounds, hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorocyclohexanes, hexachloroethane, and polychlorinated biphenyls, (2) endosulfans, (3) dicofol, dieldrin, and toxaphenes, and (4) bromodiphenyl ether 47. This indicated that bromodiphenyl ether 47, dicofol, endosulfans, and toxaphenes have different exposure routes or different kinetics to the other legacy POPs.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the environment: a wake-up call for concerted action in India

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are a class of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) used as flame retardants in the products utilized in day-to-day life. Their bioaccumulation, low volatility, and high persistence in the environment have led to their global spread even to remote and distant regions. The present study identifies gaps in the investigation of the neurotoxic potential of PBDEs, their effects on brain development, toxicokinetic, and their potential as a carcinogen. In India, to date, only human breast milk was assessed for levels of PBDEs, and it is suggested that other human tissues can also be explored. No data on the reproductive toxicity of PBDEs are reported from Indian cohorts. Long-range transport and deposition of PBDEs in colder regions necessitates monitoring of Himalayan regions in India. An inventory of PBDEs is required to be made for addressing the worrisome situation of the unregulated import of E-waste from the developed countries in India. The study also emphasizes providing guidelines for the articulation of policies regarding sound surveillance and management of PBDE production, consumption, and release in the Indian context. It is recommended that a separate cell for monitoring and follow-up of PBDEs should be established in India. Also, the development of better alternatives and environment-friendly remediation technologies for PBDEs is the need of the hour.

Levels and profiles of persistent organic pollutants in breast milk in China and their potential health risks to breastfed infants: A review

Although some persistent organic pollutants (POPs) were prohibited or limited in use several decades ago, they are still frequently detected in the human body. The purpose of this study was to understand the levels and profiles of POPs in breast milk in China and assess their potential health risks among breastfed infants under six months of age. A literature review focused on China was performed for studies published from 2001 to 2020. The POP levels in breast milk along with other important variables were extracted, and then the average individual POP levels in breast milk were estimated. This review summarises the distribution of traditional and new POPs, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), legacy brominated flame retardants (BFRs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), and chlorinated paraffins (CPs) and reported notably high levels of short-chain chlorinated paraffins and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethylene (p,p'-DDE) in breast milk. Although the levels of traditional POPs generally declined over time, especially p,p'-DDE and beta-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH), women living in coastal areas, urban areas, and southern China still have a high body burden of certain POPs. In the present study, the estimated daily intake (EDI) of POPs through breastfeeding was used to evaluate the health risk for infants by comparing with acceptable levels. The findings suggested that infants born in coastal areas most likely suffered potential health risk from exposure to DDT, and the health risk of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) in infants in most nationwide regions remains a concern. More importantly, the EDI of PCBs for infants exceeds the safe limit on a national scale. Continuous surveillance of PCBs in breast milk is critical to evaluate the potential health effects on humans.

Pesticide residues in breast milk and the associated risk assessment: A review focused on China

This review aims to provide an overview of studies on pesticide residues in breast milk in China and the related health risk to mother and infants. Results showed that the investigations of breast milk covered 22 provincial administrative regions of China. Beijing and some densely populated and economically developed areas have most publications. The study frequency was followed the order of DDTs>HCHs>HCB > ∑Drins,∑Chlordane. While the residue levels were ranked as DDTs, HCHs > ∑Drins>HCB > ∑Chlordane. The highest residue levels of DDTs and HCHs in breast milk were found in 1980s (~10,000 ng/g lipid), then experienced a sharp decrease in 1990s (~1000-2000 ng/g lipid). In 2000s and 2010s, DDTs, and HCHs residue still showed a decreasing trend. Spatially, people located in urban area, coastal areas and southern China tend to have higher pesticide residues as compared to rural area, inland area and northern China, respectively. Other factors such as dietary habit, living environment, the maternal age, the parity, body mass index, lactation period, menstruation characteristics as well as hormonal drug intake and infertility treatment will also affect the pesticide residues in breast milk of Chinese people. According to the estimated daily ingestion (EDI) of breast milk, the average health risk for infants were generally exceeded the acceptable level before 2006, while after that, most EDI values were within the standard. Body burden of pesticides in mother can also be evaluated by using the residue data in breast milk, but no relevant guidelines were available. Other knowledge gap included 1) for some provinces with large consumption of pesticides or located in remote and plateau areas, there are few/no studies available; 2) current study on pesticide residues in breast milk in China were only focused on organochlorine pesticides, research on current used pesticides (such as pyrethroids, organophosphorus, carbamate) were necessary in the future.

Screening of human health risk to infants associated with the polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) levels in human milk from Punjab Province, Pakistan

This study assessed the polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) levels in human milk and its associated health risk to infants from rural and urban settings of five districts of Punjab Province, Pakistan. The ∑₃₄PCB concentrations ranged from 30.9 to 68.3 ng g^-1 on lipid weight (l.w.) basis. The ∑₈DL-PCB concentrations were ranged from 0.29 to 1.35 ng g^-1 l.w., (mean 6.2 ± 8.7 ng g^-1 l.w.), with toxicity equivalent to polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) ranging from 8.58 × 10^-6 to 0.05 ng TEQ g^-1 l.w. The spatial trend of PCB levels in human milk revealed higher bioaccumulative levels for urban mothers as compared with rural counterparts. The estimated daily intake (EDI) values of DL-PCBs to infants through trans-mammary transfer were considerably higher than tolerable daily intake limits established by WHO (i.e., 1-4 pg TEQ kg^-1 bw) and other globally recognized organizations. Similarly, the hazard quotient values for TEQ ∑₈DL-PCBs (range 1.21 to 79.87) were far above the benchmark value of 1 at all the sampling sites, indicating the high levels of adverse health risks to infants in the region through breast milk consumption. The ∑₃₄PCB levels were found to be negatively correlated with mother' age (r = -0.31; p = 0.02), parity (r = - 0.85; p = 0.001), and infant' birth weight (r = - 0.73; p = 0.01). The present study suggests undertaking comprehensive public health risk assessment studies and firm regulatory measures to safeguard human health risks.

Bioaccumulation of POPs in human breast milk from south of the Russian Far East and exposure risk to breastfed infants

The present study is a stage of the regular POP monitoring conducted in the framework of the Russian Federation's National Implementation Plan under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. The POPs concentration (ΣHCH+ΣDDT+ΣPCB) in the samples ranged from 23 to 878 (with a mean of 151.4) ng/g lipid. The ranges of concentrations of OCPs (ΣHCH+ΣDDT) and PCBs were 2.8-291 and 3.2-720 ng/g lipid, respectively. The mean values of OCPs and PCBs amounted to 80.1 and 74.9 ng/g lipid, respectively. As suggested by the results of the EDI calculation, intake of PCBs is slightly high in infants. The fact that most studies have associated PCB with effects, such as development of congenital deformity, reduced immunity, lower weight, and small baby size at birth, makes it an alarming situation.

Occurrence of benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers (BUVSs) in human breast milk from three Asian countries

The environmental contamination by benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers (BUVSs) has received consider attention due to their long-term and widespread usage in various consumer and industrial products in accordance with solar UV radiation increase. The present study shows the baseline data of BUVSs in human breast milk from several areas in Japan, the Philippines, and Vietnam. Total concentrations of the 8 BUVSs in breast milk ranged from <MDL (method detection limit) to 1100 ng/g lipid wt. in present study. Among the 8 BUVS compounds targeted, the highest concentration of UV-9 was found in breast milk samples collected from Vietnam. The concentrations of BUVSs in human breast milk were significantly higher (p < 0.01) in Vietnam (300 ± 240 ng/g lipid wt.) than in the Philippines (100 ± 130 ng/g lipid wt.) and Japan (28 ± 34 ng/g lipid wt.). The estimated daily intake of BUVSs by infants through breast milk was one or two orders of magnitude lower than the reference dose levels.

Lake sediment records of persistent organic pollutants and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in southern Siberia mirror the changing fortunes of the Russian economy over the past 70 years

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have previously been detected in the surface sediments, water, and endemic organisms of Lake Baikal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Selenga River is the primary source of freshwater to Lake Baikal, and transports pollutants accumulating in the Selenga River basin to the lake. Sources of POPs and PAHs in the Selenga River basin grew through the 20th century. In the present study, temporal changes in the concentrations of PAHs and POPs were reconstructed from two lakes in the Selenga River basin over the past 150 years using paleolimnological techniques. Increased concentrations in PAHs and PCBs were recorded initially in the 1930s. The 1940s-1980s was the period of greatest exposure to organic contamination, and concentrations of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) and many PAHs peaked between the 1960s and 1980s in the two lakes. Declines in concentrations and fluxes were recorded for most PAHs and POPs in the 1980s and 1990s. Temporal trends in concentrations of total and individual compounds/congeners of PAH, PCBs, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) indicate the contribution of both local and regional sources of contamination in the 20th and 21st centuries. Temporal variations in contaminants can be linked to economic and industrial growth in the former USSR after World War II and the economic decline of Russia in the late-1980s and early-1990s, as well as global trends in industrialization and development during the mid-20th century.

Excretion kinetics of three dominant organochlorine compounds in human milk within the first 6 months postpartum

Breastfeeding is a specific and important way for women to eliminate harmful substances accumulated in body. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH), and 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethene (p,p'-DDE) are dominant organochlorine compounds(OCCs) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) accumulated in human being. Although a 6-month breastfeeding was suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO), the excretion characteristics of OCCs in human milk during the first 6-month lactation remain controversial. The main purpose of this study was to continuously monitor the three dominant OCC concentrations and reveal their elimination characteristic in human milk within the first 6-month lactation. To do that, with one sample per month, during their first 6-month lactation, human milk samples were continuously collected from 40 mothers after their first birth. The result showed that the concentrations of the three OCCs in human milk during the lactation continuously decreased from 51.7 to 39.9 μg/kg milk lipids for HCB, from 136.5 to 84.8 μg/kg milk lipids for β-HCH, and from 307.3 to 192 μg/kg milk lipids, respectively. The excretion kinetics of each compound in milk lipids fitted zero-order kinetics during the 6-month lactation. The excretion rate of the three OCCs was approximately 3% per month for HCB and 7% per month for the other two compounds during the lactation, with t_{dec 1/2} of 13 months for HCB, 7.5 months for β-HCH, and 8 months for p,p'-DDE. The excretion rate of the target compounds depended on initial deposited levels, compound properties, and exposure or input source.

Assessment of PCBs and exposure risk to infants in breast milk of primiparae and multiparae mothers in an electronic waste hot spot and non-hot spot areas in Ghana

The aim of the study was to assess the levels of PCBs in the breast milk of some Ghanaian women at suspected hotspot and relatively non-hotspot areas and to find out if the levels of these PCBs pose any risk to the breastfed infants. A total of 128 individual human breast milk were sampled from both primiparae and multiparae mothers. The levels of PCBs in the milk samples were compared. Some of these mothers (105 individuals) work or reside in and around Agbogbloshie (hot-spot), the largest electric and electronic waste dump and recycling site in Accra, Ghana. Others (23 donor mothers) also reside in and around Kwabenya (non-hotspot) which is a mainly residential area without any industrial activities. Samples were analyzed using GC-MS/MS. The total mean levels and range of Σ₇PCBs were 3.64ng/glipidwt and ˂LOD-29.20ng/glipidwt, respectively. Mean concentrations from Agbogbloshie (hot-spot area) and Kwabenya (non-hotspot areas) were 4.43ng/glipidwt and 0.03ng/glipidwt, respectively. PCB-28 contributed the highest of 29.5% of the total PCBs in the milk samples, and PCB-101 contributed the lowest of 1.74%. The estimated daily intake of PCBs and total PCBs concentrations in this work were found to be lower as compared to similar studies across the world. The estimated hazard quotient using Health Canada's guidelines threshold limit of 1μg/kgbw/day showed no potential health risk to babies. However, considering minimum tolerable value of 0.03μg/kgbw/day defined by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the values of some mothers were found to be at the threshold limit. This may indicate a potential health risk to their babies. Mothers with values at the threshold levels of the minimum tolerable limits are those who work or reside in and around the Agbogbloshie e-waste site.

Intake of DDT and its metabolites through food items among reproductive age women in Bangladesh

This study was conducted to make clear the major intake route of DDT in Bangladesh people to develop strategy and policy that could lead to a reduction in body burden especially in the reproductive age women. The concentrations of several POPs (DDT, PCBs, chlordanes, HCHs, HCB, and PeCB) were quantified in food items, human breast milk and house dust collected in Bangladesh in 2011-2012. Among the POPs analyzed in this study, DDT and its metabolites (ΣDDT) showed the highest concentration. The highest median ΣDDT concentration was found in meat (1.3-1100 ng g^-1 wet weight) and house dust (30-1100 ng g^-1 dry weight), and followed by human breast milk (20-55 ng g^-1 wet weight). Estimated daily intake (EDI) was calculated using the DDT concentrations in food items. The highest intake of DDT was found in an infant and 99% of it was via breast milk feeding. DDT intake via consumption of beef accounted for 69% and 72% of that found in children and adults, respectively. The total EDI of DDT did not exceed the tolerable daily intake proposed by the WHO, but the EDI of p,p'-DDT exceeded the oral reference dose proposed by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Further research is required to clarify the reason for the high levels of DDT in beef, which seems to be the major intake route of DDT for women of reproductive age in Bangladesh.

Distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in breast milk, cord blood and placentas: a systematic review

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been extensively used as flame retardants in consumer products. PBDEs rapidly bioaccumulate in the environment, food, wild animals and humans. In this review, we investigated the harmful effects of PBDEs on humans, especially in early life, and summarised the levels of PBDEs in human biological samples (breast milk, cord blood and placentas). In addition, we described the spatiotemporal distribution of PBDEs in this review. PBDE levels in breast milk, cord blood and placentas were generally higher in North America than in other regions, such as Asia, Europe, Oceania and Africa. However, high levels of PBDEs in human biological samples were detected at e-waste recycling sites in South China, East China and South Korea. This finding suggests that newborns living in e-waste regions are exposed to high levels of PBDEs during prenatal and postnatal periods. The time trends of PBDE concentration differed according to the region. Few studies have investigated PBDE levels in humans from 1967 to 2000, but they increased rapidly after 2000. PBDE concentration peaked at approximately 2006 globally. Compared with other PBDE congeners, BDE-47, BDE-153 and BDE-209 were the major components, but the detection rate of BDE-209 was lower than those of others. Future studies should focus on determining the BDE-209 concentration, which requires the implementation of different analytical approaches. Additionally, the levels of PBDEs in human samples and the environment should be monitored, especially in e-waste recycling regions. Graphical abstract The figures described the spatial distribution of the lowest (Fig. a1) and highest concentration of ∑PBDE (Fig. a2) in different countries by 2006 and described the spatial distribution of the lowest (Fig. b1) and highest concentration of ∑PBDE (Fig. b2) in different countries from 2007 to 2015. All the figures indicated that the levels of PBDEs in North America were substantially higher than those in many regions of Europe, Asia, Oceania, or Africa. Comparing Fig. a1-b1 or Fig. a2-b2, increasing trends were observed in some countries, especially in some regions in China, Korea and Canada.

PCBs and OCPs in human milk in Eastern Siberia, Russia: Levels, temporal trends and infant exposure assessment

The aim of our study is to investigate the spatial distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (p,p'-DDT) and its metabolites, α- and γ-isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) in 155 samples of human milk (HM) from Eastern Siberia (six towns and seven villages in Irkutsk Region, one village of the Republic of Buryatia and one town in Zabaikal'sk Region, Russia), and to examine the dietary and social factors influencing the human exposure to the organochlorines. The median and range of the concentration of six indicator PCBs in HM in 14 localities in Eastern Siberia (114 (19-655) ng g^-1 lipids respectively) are similar to levels in the majority of European countries. However, in one village, Onguren, the median and range of levels of six indicator PCBs (1390 (300-3725) ng g^-1 lipids) were comparable to levels measured in highly contaminated populations. The Lake Baikal seals are highly exposed to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and could be a potential source of PCB and DDT exposure in the Onguren cohort via the consumption of the Lake Baikal seal tissue. The location of food production in areas exposed to the emissions of local POP sources can also significantly influence POP levels in HM samples from industrialized areas. Estimated daily intakes (EDI) of HCH and HCB for infants are considerably lower or close to acceptable daily intake (ADI). The EDI of total DDTs and total PCBs are higher than ADI.

Risk profile and health vulnerability of female workers who pick cotton by organanochlorine pesticides from southern Punjab, Pakistan

The present study was conducted to highlight the existing level of organochlorine-pesticides (OCPs) from human milk (n = 45) and blood serum (n = 40) of female workers who pick cotton in Khanewal District, southern Punjab, Pakistan. Source apportionment, congener-specific analysis, and risk surveillance of OCPs are reported from human milk and blood samples. Levels of OCPs in milk and blood serum samples ranged from 15.7 ppb to 538.3 ppb and from 16.4 ppb to 747.1 ppb, respectively, and were lower than previously published reports from other regions of the globe. Congener-specific analysis revealed that DDTs were predominant, followed by hexachlorocyclohexane, chlordane, and hexachlorobenzene. Calculated results for source apportionment analysis suggested that contamination load was a new input of DDTs as well as the historic use of lindane in the study area. Levels of OCPs in milk and blood serum were significantly (p < 0.05) correlated with age, time period of picking cotton, and number of children. Health risk revealed that female workers had risk of cancer among 1 per million; however, noncarcinogenic risks were not considerable. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:1193-1201. © 2016 SETAC.

Levels and profiles of brominated and chlorinated contaminants in human breast milk from Thessaloniki, Greece

Human breast milk samples (n=87) collected between July 2004 and July 2005 from primipara and multipara mothers from Thessaloniki, Greece were analysed for six groups of persistent organic pollutants (POPs): polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), chlordane compounds (CHLs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB). DDTs [median: 410ng/g lipid weight (lw)], PCBs (median: 90ng/g lw) and HCHs (median: 40ng/g lw) were the predominantly identified compounds in all the breast milk samples. Levels of PBDEs (median: 1.5ng/g lw) in human breast milk samples from Thessaloniki, Greece were lower compared to other countries. Maternal age had a positive correlation with most compounds, but not with PBDEs. Women with a higher occupational exposure to PBDEs (i.e., working in office environments) had higher PBDE concentrations than all others and showed strong correlations, especially for BDE 47 and BDE 153. None of the analysed compounds showed any correlation with parity. Based on these levels, the daily intake of each group of POPs via human milk was calculated and compared with the tolerable daily intakes (TDI) or the reference doses (RfD). For the majority of samples (85 out of 87) a higher daily intake of PCBs than the TDI was calculated, while 11 out of 87 samples had a higher HCB intake than the TDI. The TDI and the RfD were not exceeded for DDTs and PBDEs, respectively. This is the first report of brominated flame retardants in human breast milk from Greece.

Recent status of organohalogens, heavy metals and PAHs pollution in specific locations in India

Our group of scientists at the Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, Japan has been carrying-out studies in India from the 1980s on chemicals contamination. Due to its agrarian economy, use of fossil fuels, industries, growing population and urbanization, chemicals such as pesticides, dioxins and related chemicals (DRCs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), heavy metals, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widely spread in India. We have published a review (Subramanian and Tanabe, 2007) covering papers published until 2005, on India. A decade had passed and this is the time to provide an update of the spatial and temporal changes during this period and hence this review. At many instances organochlorines such as DDTs and HCHs showed decreasing trends even though they are still at considerable levels. Novel chemicals such as PCDDs/Fs are seen at municipal solid waste dumping sites of India at levels equivalent to similar locations of the developed world. In the e-waste processing sites in India, especially the informal ones, apart from PCDDs/Fs, some brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and heavy metals were present as contaminants. Metro cities of India showed location specific contamination by HCHs, DDTs, PCDDs/Fs, BFRs, PAHs, etc. Coastal regions of India seem to be still unpolluted when compared to the nearby inland locations. This review is concerned mainly with the chemicals that we (CMES) have been evaluating in India in the past three decades. We suggest the importance of further studies, future directions for policy decisions and also for implementing control measures.

Organochlorine pesticides and their metabolites in human breast milk from Shanghai, China

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are persistent organic pollutants that could cause deleterious effects on human health. Breast milk represents a noninvasive specimen source to assess maternal and infant exposure to OCPs. This study recruited 142 pregnant mothers in 2011-2012 in Shanghai, China, and their breast milk samples were collected during lactation and analyzed for 27 OCP compounds. Detection rates were in a range of 65.5 to 100 %. In particular, metabolites of 2,2-bis(chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane (DDT) such as 2-chloro-1,1-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethylene (DDMU), 2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethanol (DDOH), bis(4-chlorophenyl)ketone (DBP), and 4,4'-dichlorodiphenylmethane (DDM) were detected in most milk samples. DDTs, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) were dominant OCPs with mean levels of 316, 49.8, and 41.5 ng/g lipid content, respectively, whereas levels of methoxychlor, ∑Drins, ∑Heptachlor, ∑Chlordane, and ∑Endosulfan were fairly low (0.87-5.6 ng/g lipid content). Milk concentrations of OCPs were weakly correlated with maternal age, body weight, and body mass indexes (BMIs). ∑OCPs in this study were much lower than those in human breast milk samples collected in 2002 and 2007. Consumption of higher amounts of fish was associated with higher milk levels of OCPs. Specific OCP patterns in breast milk samples from migrant mothers in Shanghai reflected features of OCP production, use, and exposure in their home provinces. The probabilistic exposure assessment model reveals that Shanghai infants were exposed to low levels of OCPs through breast milk consumption. However, infants as the vulnerable group might be subject to the potential additive and/or synergistic health effects from complex OCP exposure.

Spatial and temporal trends of the Stockholm Convention POPs in mothers' milk -- a global review

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been of environmental and health concern for more than half a century and have their own intergovernmental regulation through the Stockholm Convention, from 2001. One major concern is the nursing child's exposure to POPs, a concern that has led to a very large number of scientific studies on POPs in mothers' milk. The present review is a report on the assessment on worldwide spatial distributions of POPs and of their temporal trends. The data presented herein is a compilation based on scientific publications between 1995 and 2011. It is evident that the concentrations in mothers' milk depend on the use of pesticides and industrial chemicals defined as POPs. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and "dioxins" are higher in the more industrialized areas, Europe and Northern America, whereas pesticides are higher in Africa and Asia and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are reported in higher concentrations in the USA. POPs are consequently distributed to women in all parts of the world and are thus delivered to the nursing child. The review points out several major problems in the reporting of data, which are crucial to enable high quality comparisons. Even though the data set is large, the comparability is hampered by differences in reporting. In conclusion, much more detailed instructions are needed for reporting POPs in mothers' milk. Temporal trend data for POPs in mothers' milk is scarce and is of interest when studying longer time series. The only two countries with long temporal trend studies are Japan and Sweden. In most cases, the trends show decreasing concentrations of POPs in mothers' milk. However, hexabromocyclododecane is showing increasing temporal concentration trends in both Japan and Sweden.

Monitoring of pesticide residues in human breast milk from Punjab, India and its correlation with health associated parameters

This study was undertaken to determine the present status of pesticide residues in breast milk from Punjab. A total of 127 breast milk samples were analyzed and pesticide residues were detected in 25 % of the milk samples. Residues of cyfluthrin, fenvalerate, cypermethrin, profenophos, γ-HCH, β-HCH, chlorpyriphos, monocrotophos, p,p' DDE and phosalone were detected with mean levels of 63.04, 11.69, 3.63, 2.66, 2.64, 2.29, 1.91, 1.63, 0.56 and 0.29 ng g(-1), respectively. Cyfluthrin was leading pesticide detected in breast milk contributing 31.28 % to the total residue load. It was observed that the residue levels were decreasing with increase in parity and age of mother and cyfluthrin had highest mean concentration of 90.63 ng g(-1) in the first parity and 21.11 ng g(-1) in youngest age group. Residue levels were higher in urban population than the rural population although, statistically non-significant difference was found between the two (p > 0.05).

The legal framework to manage chemical pollution in India and the lesson from the Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

India's rapid agro-economic growth has resulted into many environmental issues, especially related to chemical pollution. Environmental management and control of toxic chemicals have gained significant attention from policy makers, researchers, and enterprises in India. The present study reviews the policy and legal and non-regulatory schemes set in place in this country during the last decades to manage chemical risk and compares them with those in developed nations. India has a large and fragmented body of regulation to control and manage chemical pollution which appears to be ineffective in protecting environment and human health. The example of POPs contamination in India is proposed to support such a theory. Overlapping of jurisdictions and retrospectively approached environmental policy and risk management currently adopted in India are out of date and excluding Indian economy from the process of building and participating into new, environmentally-sustainable market spaces for chemical products. To address these issues, the introduction of a new integrated and scientifically-informed regulation and management scheme is recommended. Such scheme should acknowledge the principle of risk management rather than the current one based on risk acceptance. To this end, India should take advantage of the experience of recently introduced chemical management regulation in some developed nations.

Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in human milk samples from two regions in Croatia

We analyzed 20 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and seven organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in milk samples collected during 2009-2011 from primiparae living in two different regions in Croatia. p,p'-DDE is the dominant organochlorine pesticide. α-HCH/γ-HCH and p,p'-DDE/p,p'-DDT ratios indicate that there is fresh input of γ-HCH in investigated population on both locations, while this is not applicable to p,p'-DDT. The PCB profile was dominated by higher chlorinated congeners. Non-ortho PCB congeners which have the highest TEF values were not detected in any of individual samples. Toxic equivalents for mono-ortho substituted PCB congeners indicated higher exposure to toxic PCBs in Zadar, but estimated daily intakes for both locations indicate that infants consuming mother's milk are not at risk of adverse effects caused by PCBs and OCPs. Our study builds on the previous research of human milk samples collected in Zagreb and reveals that over 10-year period, levels of investigated organochlorine compounds decreased significantly.

Levels of PCDD/Fs, PCBs and PBDEs in breast milk of women living in the vicinity of a hazardous waste incinerator: assessment of the temporal trend

The concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were determined in breast milk from women living in the vicinity of a hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) in Catalonia, Spain. The results were compared with the levels obtained in previous surveys carried out in the same area in 1998 (baseline study), 2002 and 2007. The current total concentrations of 2,3,7,8-chlorinated PCDD/Fs in breast milk ranged from 18 to 126 pg g(-1)fat (1.1-12. 3 pg WHO2005-TEQPCDD/F), while the total levels of PCBs ranged from 27 to 405 pg g(-1)fat(0.7-5.3 pg WHO2005-TEQPCB). In turn, PBDE concentrations (sum of 15 congeners) ranged 0.3-5.1 g g(-1)fat, with a mean value of 1.3 ng g(-1)fat. A general decrease in the concentrations for PCDD/Fs, both planar and total PCBs, and PBDEs in breast milk was observed. The levels of PCDD/Fs, PCBs, and PBDEs in milk of women living in urban zones were higher than those corresponding to industrial zones (41%, 26%, and 8%, respectively). For PCDD/Fs and PCBs, the current decreases are in accordance with the reduction in the dietary intake of these pollutants that we have also observed in recent studies carried out in the same area of study.

Contamination of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in breast milk in Korea: time-course variation, influencing factors, and exposure assessment

Breast milk is a noninvasive specimen to assess maternal and infant exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs). In this study, 206 breast milk samples were collected from 87 participants during lactation, at <7, 15, 30, or 90 days postpartum in four cities in Korea. The total concentrations of PCBs (ΣPCB) and OCPs (ΣOCP) ranged from <LOQ to 84.0 (median: 12.1) ng g(-1) lipid weight and from <LOQ to 559 (median: 144) ng g(-1) lipid weight, respectively. The residue levels of these contaminants measured in our study were relatively lower than those reported for European, African and Asian populations. Within a month postpartum typically after day seven the levels of ΣPCB and ΣOCP significantly increased. Some OCP compounds were correlated with maternal age, BMI, parity, and delivery mode. Certain types of dietary habits such as seafood and noodle consumption were significantly associated with ΣPCB and ΣOCP. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of ΣPCB and ΣOCP were 45.2-127 ng kg(-1) bw day(-1) and 625-1259 ng kg(-1) bw day(-1) during lactation, respectively, which are lower than the threshold values proposed by the US EPA and Health Canada. The exposure of Korean infants to chlordanes via breast milk had a potential health risk which deserves further investigation.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in breast milk of Korea in 2011: current contamination, time course variation, influencing factors and health risks

Breast milk is a valuable biological specimen to assess maternal and infant exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). In this study, 208 breast milk samples were collected from 89 participants during lactation period, at <7, 15, 30, and 90 days postpartum, in four cities in Korea, and were determined for 19 PBDE congeners. The total PBDE concentrations (ΣPBDE) ranged from 0.23 to 68.4 (mean: 2.73) ng/g lipid weight, and were within the ranges reported for European and Asian countries. Within a month of lactation after delivery, no significant changes were found in the PBDE concentrations. The predominance of BDE 153 rather than BDE 47 was found in the most samples that BDE 153 was detected, and was likely to be associated with stepwise debromination of BDE 209. No associations were found between PBDE concentrations in breast milk and demographic parameters, except for ΣPBDE with maternal age and delivery mode. Certain types of diet such as corn, seafood and nut correlated significantly with PBDE levels in breast milk. The estimated daily intakes of ΣPBDE for breast-feeding infants were lower than the guidelines proposed by the US EPA, indicating limited health risk from PBDEs through breast feeding.

Extraction and clean-up methods for organochlorine pesticides determination in milk

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) can cause environmental damage and human health risks since they are lipophilic compounds with high resistance to degradation and long half-lives in humans. As most persistent OCPs have been banned years ago, it is expected to find these compounds at trace levels in environment. Therefore, increasingly sensitive and reliable analytical techniques are required to ensure effective monitoring of these compounds. The aim of this review is to discuss extraction and clean-up methods used to monitor OCP residues in milk, reported in the last 20 years. To carry out this review, an exhaustive bibliographic review was conducted. Despite the disadvantages of conventional extraction and clean-up methods, such as liquid-liquid, solid-phase or Soxhlet extractions, these procedures are still used due to their reliability. New extraction methods, like solid-phase microextraction, matrix solid-phase dispersion or QuEChERS, have not been thoroughly evaluated for OCP determination in milk. Almost all the methodologies analyzed in this review presented good performance characteristics according to the performance acceptability criteria set in SANCO's procedure. Comparison between limits of quantification (LOQ) and detection (LOD), for the reported methodologies, is not always possible due to the heterogeneity of the units. Thus, researchers should take into account an homogenization of LOD and LOQ units, according to the international regulations and MRLs established. Finally, more research is necessary to obtain the ideal methodology for OCPs determination in milk, which comprises the environmentally friendly characteristics of the new techniques and the reliability of the traditional methodologies.

Levels of tetrabromobisphenol A, hexabromocyclododecanes and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in human milk from the general population in Beijing, China

Three brominated flame retardants (BFRs), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), were measured in 103 human milk samples collected from Beijing in 2011. The donors' personal information, such as dietary habit and socioeconomic and lifestyle factors, was obtained by questionnaires. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) analysis indicated that the levels of TBBPA ranged from <LOD to 12.46 ng g(-1) lipid weight (lw), with a median value of 0.10 ng g(-1) lw. Three HBCD diastereoisomers (α-, β- and γ-HBCD) were also measured using UPLC-MS/MS. The levels of ΣHBCDs ranged from <LOD to 78.28 ng g(-1) lw, with a median value of 2.40 ng g(-1) lw. α-HBCD was generally the most abundant of the three isomers. Eight PBDE congeners, BDE-28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183 and 209, were measured using gas chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The concentrations of ΣPBDEs ranged from 0.22 to 135.41 ng g(-1) lw, with a median value of 3.24 ng g(-1) lw. BDE-209 dominated the PBDE profile in the majority of the human milk samples. The mean estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of TBBPA, ΣHBCDs and ΣPBDEs by breast-fed infants were 2.34, 24.89 and 71.27 ng kg(-1) bw day(-1), respectively. No significant correlation was found between the BFR levels in milk and the mother's diet, place of residence, smoking habit, nursing duration or computer use habit. In contrast, the mother's age, body mass index (BMI), education level and number of computers in the home were related to the levels of some types of BFRs. More research is needed to further investigate the major source(s) of exposure, the effect of each potential factor and the possible toxicological impact of high daily BFR intake on infants.

Hexachlorobenzene in human milk collected from Beijing, China

High concentration of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) was detected in Beijing breast milk in 2002. In order to identify trend in exposure, 65 breast milk samples were collected from 50 primiparous mothers during 2009-2011. The present concentration of HCB in the breast milk (range: 10.9-160.5 μg kg(-1) fat; median: 55.0 μg kg(-1) fat) was higher than that of the recent national average level and those of other countries or regions. This may be partially due to the previous extensive HCB exposure. A longitudinal study of HCB in human milk within six months postpartum showed that the level did not significantly decreased, and remained stable. The estimated daily intake (EDI) for the newborn (range: 0.045-0.43 μg kg(-1) body weight/d; median: 0.20 μg kg(-1) body weight/d) was also higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) tolerable daily intake value (0.17 μg kg(-1) body weight/d for non-cancer effects). Despite the apparent decrease of HCB body burden in past 10 years, the environmental health hazard from HCB contamination in Beijing remains a concern. Therefore a regular human milk monitoring programs for HCB are needed.

Musks and organochlorine pesticides in breast milk from Shanghai, China: levels, temporal trends and exposure assessment

The concentrations of musks (polycyclic musks and nitro musks) and traditional organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDT, DDE, DDD, and total DDTs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) in breast milk collected in Shanghai, China during the period 2006-2010, were determined. The total concentrations ranged from 4.7 to 276.2 (median: 58.4) ng/glipid weight (lw) for musks and from 88.3 to 2532.9 (median: 1003.8) ng/glw for OCPs. 4,4'-DDE (median: 655.4 ng/glw) was the predominant OCP, followed by β-HCH (median: 172.5 ng/g lw), and HHCB (1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta[γ]-2-benzopyran) (median: 17.7 ng/g lw) was the dominant musk. There was no statistical correlation between total musk concentrations, and HCB, HCHs, DDTs or total OCP concentrations, indicating their different exposure routes and metabolism in humans (p=0.182-0.325). Clear reductions in temporal trends in the levels of DDTs and HCB, especially HCHs (p<0.01) were observed during the sampling period, and the high DDE/DDT ratios in the samples indicated past exposure to DDTs. The relatively high median concentrations of HHCB and HHCB-lactone in 2010 suggested a probably increasing tendency. There were statistically significant influences regarding maternal age and parity on OCP accumulation (p=0.001-0.002), but no significant effect on musks was found (p=0.542-0.919). Musk exposure in neonates via breast milk was 2-3 orders of magnitude lower than suggested provisional tolerable daily intakes (PTDI). The estimated daily intakes for HCB and DDTs were below the PTDI in Canada, however, 56% of those for HCHs exceeded the Canadian PTDI. OCP contamination of breast milk requires further attention.

Determination of chlorinated pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in human milk from Bizerte (Tunisia) in 2010

Thirty persistent organohalogen compounds including organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were determined in breast milk samples (n=36) of primipara and multipara mothers from Bizerte in 2010. The analytical procedure involved the application of liquid-liquid extraction and gas chromatography with electron capture detector (GC-ECD) or mass spectrometry detector (GC-MS) for identification and quantification. Organohalogen compounds were found in all the analyzed samples, with predominance of p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDD, HCB and PCBs. The mean concentration of ∑DDTs in breast milk was 1163.9 ng g(-1) lipid wt. The ratio of p,p'-DDE/p,p'-DDT was low, suggesting that there is fresh intake of commercial DDT products in Bizerte. The mean levels of HCB and PCB were 286.8 and 331.2 ng g(-1) lipid wt respectively. These results were compared with the levels obtained in a previous study carried out in the same area in 2003. A general decrease of ∑DDTs levels and an increase of PCB levels were observed. Among the 10 PBDE congeners evaluated, BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-66, BDE-138, BDE-100, BDE-154, BDE-153, and BDE-183 were detected in the analyzed samples at different frequency. The total PBDE concentrations ranged from 2.5 to 22.6 ng g(-1) lipid wt in the samples, with a mean and median value of 10.7 and 9.8 ng g(-1) lipid wt respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first data of PBDEs in Tunisian human milk. The present study shows that age and parity are factors influencing the levels of some organohalogen compounds in human milk.

Brominated flame retardants and polychlorinated biphenyls in human breast milk from several locations in India: potential contaminant sources in a municipal dumping site

This study investigated the status of contamination of organohalogen compounds (OCs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and brominated flame retardant (BFRs), including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) in human milk samples from several locations in India. The levels of OCs were significantly higher in the milk of mothers living in and near municipal dumping site than other locations indicating that the open dumping sites for municipal wastes act as potential sources of these contaminants in India. The PCB concentrations observed in this study tended to decrease compared to those in the matched locations reported previously, probably due to the restriction of technical PCB usage in India. PBDE levels in human milk were two to three folds lower than those of PCBs in all the sampling locations investigated. Congener profiles of PCBs and PBDEs were different between samples from the dumping site mothers and general populations in other areas suggesting the presence of region-specific sources and pathways. HBCDs were detected in human milk from only two sites, with much lower concentrations and detection frequencies compared to PCBs and PBDEs. When hazard quotients (HQs) of PCBs and PBDEs were estimated for infant health risk, the HQs in some milk samples from the dumping site exceeded the threshold value (HQ>1) of PCBs, indicating the potential risk for infants in the specific site.

Assessment of organochlorine pesticides in human milk and risk exposure to infants from North-East India

Despite the worldwide ban on use of persistent organochlorine pesticides, their usage continued until recently in India, for vector-borne disease eradication programs and agricultural purposes. The concentrations of organochlorine contaminants, DDT and HCH, have been determined in human breast milk from Dibrugarh and Nagaon districts of Assam state, North-East India. The results demonstrated that the mean levels of total DDT were 3210 ng/g lipid wt. and 2870 ng/g lipid wt. and total HCH were 2720 ng/g lipid wt. and 2330 ng/g lipid wt. in Nagaon and Dibrugarh respectively. There was no significant difference in the levels of investigated pollutants between the two districts. Significant differences in ADI (Average daily intake) for total DDT were found between the two districts. In addition, a positive correlation was observed between OCP levels in breast milk and age of mothers. Based on OCP levels in human breast milk, the ADI by the infants has been estimated. It has been found that high daily intake of DDTs and HCHs by the infants exceeded the TDI (Tolerable daily intake) which implied that infants of the region are potentially at high risk by these contaminants.

Concentration of DDT compounds in breast milk from African women (Manhiça, Mozambique) at the early stages of domestic indoor spraying with this insecticide

Breast milk concentrations of 4,4'-DDT and its related compounds were studied in samples collected in 2002 and 2006 from two populations of mothers in Manhiça, Mozambique. The 2006 samples were obtained several months after implementation of indoor residual spraying (IRS) with DDT for malaria vector control in dwellings and those from 2002 were taken as reference prior to DDT use. A significant increase in 4,4'-DDT and its main metabolite, 4,4'-DDE, was observed between the 2002 (median values 2.4 and 0.9 ng/ml, respectively) and the 2006 samples (7.3 and 2.6 ng/ml, respectively, p<0.001 and 0.019, respectively). This observation identifies higher body burden intakes of these compounds in pregnant women already in these initial stages of the IRS program. The increase in both 4,4'-DDT and 4,4'-DDE suggest a rapid transformation of DDT into DDE after incorporation of the insecticide residues. The median baseline concentrations in breast milk in 2002 were low, and the median concentrations in 2006 (280 ng/g lipid) were still lower than in other world populations. However, the observed increases were not uniform and in some individuals high values (5100 ng/g lipid) were determined. Significant differences were found between the concentrations of DDT and related compounds in breast milk according to parity, with higher concentrations in primiparae than multiparae women. These differences overcome the age effect in DDT accumulation between the two groups and evidence that women transfer a significant proportion of their body burden of DDT and its metabolites to their infants.

Persistent organic pollutants in human milk from central Italy: levels and time trends

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as HCB, p,p'-DDE, and PCBs were measured in Italian breast milk. This work is part of a study on human milk, adipose tissues, and food carried out in the same area over the last 20 years. The results showed the prevalence of p,p'-DDE and PCBs over HCB. Comparison of our results with those of previous studies carried out in the same area showed that concentrations are decreasing. No statistically significant differences in organochlorine levels were found when the samples were divided into maternal age classes and into the categories "primiparae" and "multiparae". In order to quantify the amount of the molecules of interest transmitted by mother to child during breast feeding, we estimated the daily intake of each class of compounds: our results indicated that HCB and p,p'-DDE were several times lower than the safety thresholds.

Human exposure to PCBs, PBDEs and HBCDs in Ghana: Temporal variation, sources of exposure and estimation of daily intakes by infants

Human exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) was evaluated in Ghana using breast milk samples collected in 2004 and 2009. Mean levels and ranges of PBDEs (4.5; 0.86-18 ng/g lw) and PCBs (62; 15-160 ng/g lw) observed in the present study were unexpectedly high, in spite of the fact that Ghana is a non-industrialized country when compared with many of the Asian and European countries. Significant increases were found in the concentrations of PCBs and PBDEs over the years, while no significant increase was observed for HBCDs. Estimated hazard quotient (HQ) showed that all the mothers had HQ values exceeding the threshold of 1 for PCBs, indicating potential health risk for their children. PCBs in dirty oils and obsolete equipment should be of concern as potential sources in Ghana, and e-waste recycling with little or no experience in safe handling could be a threat to this sub-region noted for unregulated disposal of e-waste. The results may point towards an increase in trends in human milk in Ghana, especially in the larger cities but further analysis would be required to confirm this upward trend in levels. This is the first study to report BFRs in human breast milk from Africa, and undoubtedly from Ghana.

A national survey of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and indicator polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in Chinese mothers' milk

Seven polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) congeners (BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-154 and BDE-183) and six indicator polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) congeners (CB-28, CB-52, CB-101, CB-138, CB-153 and CB-180) were measured in 24 pooled human milk samples comprised of 1237 individual samples from 12 provinces in China. The samples were taken to estimate the background body burden of general population and assess nursing infant exposure via human milk in China. The median concentrations of ∑(7)PBDEs and ∑(6)PCBs were 1.49 and 10.50 ng g(-1) lipid weight (lw), respectively. BDE-28, BDE-47 and BDE-153 were predominant PBDE congeners accounting for nearly 70% of ∑(7)PBDEs. As for indicator PCBs, CB-153 was the most abundant congener, followed by CB-138. In our study, there was no significantly statistical relationship between concentrations of PBDEs in milk samples and maternal age as well as dietary habits. ∑(7)PBDEs did not correlate to ∑(6)PCBs in Chinese mothers' milk. The human exposure to indicator PCBs in China was found to be significantly determined by maternal age, dietary habits and geographical factors. It is suggested that Chinese general population is probably exposed to PBDEs with multiple sources and pathways. The estimated daily intakes (EDI) of BDE-47, BDE-99 and BDE-153 for the Chinese nursing infant were much lower than corresponding threshold reference values suggested by USEPA.

PCDD, PCDF, PCB and PBDE concentrations in breast milk of mothers residing in selected areas of Slovakia

The concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) and polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) in 33 breast milk samples collected in 2006-2007 from primipara mothers close to four industrial areas of Slovak Republic were determined. The total PCDDs/PCDFs and dl-PCBs expressed as TEQ based on WHO TEFs 1998 in breast milk samples varied from 5.0 to 51.8 pg g(-1) fat (median: 13.1 pg g(-1) fat; mean: 18.0 pg g(-1) fat). The measurements of seven PBDE congeners (IUPAC No. 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, and 183) were performed for the first time in human milk from Slovakia. PBDE levels ranged between 0.22 and 1.62 ng g(-1) fat, with median and mean value of 0.43 ng g(-1) fat and 0.57 ng g(-1) fat respectively. No statistically significant differences were observed between studied areas in total PBDE concentrations. Furthermore, this study presents first results concerning the daily intake (DI) of PCDDs/PCDFs and dioxin-like compounds for the most vulnerable breast-fed infant population in Slovakia. The total PCDD/PCDF and dl-PCB DI for an infant during the first 2 months of life was estimated in a range from 14.4 to 230 pg TEQ kg(-1)b.w., with a median value of 58.9 pg TEQ kg(-1)b.w.. The DI values substantially exceeded the tolerable daily intake (TDI) 1-4 pg TEQ kg(-1)b.w. recommended by WHO. The dietary infant intake concerning PBDEs was estimated to be between 0.69 and 7.1 ng kg(-1)b.w.d(-1), with median value of 1.7 ng kg(-1)b.w.d(-1).

PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs in human milk and estimation of infants' daily intake: a review

This paper reviews the recent scientific literature on PCDDs, PCDFs and dioxin-like PCBs in human milk. All the papers reporting levels of these contaminants in human breast milk published from January 2000 to January 2009 and available on the www.sciencedirect.com web site were identified and included. The aim was (1) to study levels of PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs in human milk in mothers from different geographical areas and assess infant exposure to these contaminants; (2) to study the effect of variables such as the mother's age, number of deliveries, dietary and smoking habits and her own nutrition in infancy, and the environment, on levels of the contaminants in breast milk; (3) to study time patterns, and (4) to identify data gaps.

Bioaccumulation and behavioral effects of 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) in perinatally exposed mice

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are widely used flame retardants that have become pervasive environmental contaminants and may contribute to adverse health outcomes. We evaluated in mice the developmental neurotoxicity of 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47), one of the most abundant PBDE congeners detected in animal and human tissues. Female C57BL/6J mice were exposed to daily doses of 0, 0.03, 0.1 or 1mg/kg beginning 4 weeks prior to conception, continuing through gestation and lactation, and ending at weaning on postnatal day (PND) 21. Levels of BDE-47 in blood, brain, liver and adipose tissues of dams were markedly increased after 4 weeks of exposure, around the time of mating, and continued to increase through the time of parturition. Blood levels of BDE-47 in the dosed dams were within the range reported in humans. BDE-47 tissue levels in the dams decreased between parturition and weaning, possibly reflecting mobilization during lactation. Brain BDE-47 levels in the offspring at PND 1 approached those of the dams at parturition. Perinatal exposure to BDE-47 resulted in significant dose dependent growth retardation, slower motor performance in several behavioral tests, and mice exposed to 1mg/kg/day BDE-47 showed altered performance in the Morris water maze. There were no differences between groups in the numbers of pyramidal neurons in hippocampus CA1. These results document accumulation of BDE-47 in several organ systems following exposure to low-levels of BDE-47, and provide evidence that such exposure is associated with early behavioral deficits in exposed neonates.