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Taneez M, Österlund H, Lundy L, Viklander M. Impacts of stormwater pipe materials and pipe repairs on stormwater quality: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:118065-118077. [PMID: 37924396 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-30508-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023]
Abstract
The water quality implications of transferring stormwater through pipes composed of concrete (new and used), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), galvanized corrugated steel (GCS), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and pipes subjected to cured in place pipe (CIPP) and spray in place pipe (SIPP) trenchless repair technologies on stormwater quality are reviewed. Studies involve either the use of flowing water or an immersion experimental design, with data showing contact with pipe materials can affect stormwater quality parameters including pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and concentrations of minerals, metals, and organic constituents, e.g. styrene. 'In-transport' changes in pH (1-3 units), EC (2-3-fold), bicarbonate (3-44-fold), and calcium (2-17-fold) in stormwaters were reported following exposure to concrete pipes. Differences between the use of synthetic and field-collected stormwater were identified, e.g. turbidity levels in field-collected stormwater reduced on passage through all pipe types, compared to synthetic water where levels of turbidity on exposure to concrete and cement-based SIPP increased slightly. Transfer through PVC and HDPE pipes had minimal effects on physicochemical parameters, whereas exposure to galvanized corrugated steel pipes led to increases in EC, Zn, and Pb. Though limited data was available, the use of CIPP repairs and associated waste condensate generated during thermal curing and/or incomplete curing of resins was identified to release organic contaminants of concerns (e.g. styrene, vinylic monomers, dibutyl phthalate (DBP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), and benzaldehyde). The implications of findings for both future research and stakeholders with responsibility for reducing diffuse pollution loads to receiving waters are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehwish Taneez
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87, Luleå, Sweden.
| | - Heléne Österlund
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87, Luleå, Sweden
| | - Lian Lundy
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87, Luleå, Sweden
| | - Maria Viklander
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87, Luleå, Sweden
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2
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Morales AC, West CP, Peterson BN, Noh Y, Whelton AJ, Laskin A. Diversity of organic components in airborne waste discharged from sewer pipe repairs. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2023; 25:1670-1683. [PMID: 37682218 DOI: 10.1039/d3em00084b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Air-discharged waste from commonly used trenchless technologies of sewer pipe repairs is an emerging and poorly characterized source of urban pollution. This study reports on the molecular-level characterization of the atmospherically discharged aqueous-phase waste condensate samples collected at four field sites of the sewer pipe repairs. The molecular composition of organic species in these samples was investigated using reversed-phase liquid chromatography coupled with a photodiode array detector and a high-resolution mass spectrometer equipped with interchangeable atmospheric pressure photoionization and electrospray ionization sources. The waste condensate components comprise a complex mixture of organic species that can partition between gas-, aqueous-, and solid-phases when water evaporates from the air-discharged waste. Identified organic species have broad variability in molecular weight, molecular structures, and carbon oxidation state, which also varied between the waste samples. All condensates contained complex mixtures of oxidized organics, N- and S-containing organics, condensed aromatics, and their functionalized derivatives that are directly released to the atmospheric environment during installations. Furthermore, semi-volatile, low volatility, and extremely low volatility organic compounds comprise 75-85% of the total compounds identified in the waste condensates. Estimates of the component-specific viscosities suggest that upon evaporation of water waste material would form the semi-solid and solid phases. The low volatilities and high viscosities of chemical components in these waste condensates will contribute to the formation of atmospheric secondary organic aerosols and atmospheric solid nanoplastic particles. Lastly, selected components expected in the condensates were quantified and found to be present at high concentrations (1-20 mg L-1) that may exceed regulatory limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C Morales
- College of Science, Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
| | - Christopher P West
- College of Science, Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
| | - Brianna N Peterson
- College of Science, Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
| | - Yoorae Noh
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Andrew J Whelton
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Alexander Laskin
- College of Science, Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
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3
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Morales AC, Tomlin JM, West CP, Rivera-Adorno FA, Peterson BN, Sharpe SAL, Noh Y, Sendesi SMT, Boor BE, Howarter JA, Moffet RC, China S, O'Callahan BT, El-Khoury PZ, Whelton AJ, Laskin A. Atmospheric emission of nanoplastics from sewer pipe repairs. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 17:1171-1177. [PMID: 36203091 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-022-01219-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Nanoplastic particles are inadequately characterized environmental pollutants that have adverse effects on aquatic and atmospheric systems, causing detrimental effects to human health through inhalation, ingestion and skin penetration1-3. At present, it is explicitly assumed that environmental nanoplastics (EnvNPs) are weathering fragments of microplastic or larger plastic debris that have been discharged into terrestrial and aquatic environments, while atmospheric EnvNPs are attributed solely to aerosolization by wind and other mechanical forces. However, the sources and emissions of unintended EnvNPs are poorly understood and are therefore largely unaccounted for in various risk assessments4. Here we show that large quantities of EnvNPs may be directly emitted into the atmosphere as steam-laden waste components discharged from a technology commonly used to repair sewer pipes in urban areas. A comprehensive chemical analysis of the discharged waste condensate has revealed the abundant presence of insoluble colloids, which after drying form solid organic particles with a composition and viscosity consistent with EnvNPs. We suggest that airborne emissions of EnvNPs from these globally used sewer repair practices may be prevalent in highly populated urban areas5, and may have important implications for air quality and toxicological levels that need to be mitigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C Morales
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Jay M Tomlin
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Yoorae Noh
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Seyedeh M T Sendesi
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Brandon E Boor
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - John A Howarter
- School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | | | - Swarup China
- Physical Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
| | - Brian T O'Callahan
- Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
| | - Patrick Z El-Khoury
- Physical Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
| | - Andrew J Whelton
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
- Department of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Alexander Laskin
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
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Noh Y, Boor BE, Shannahan JH, Troy CD, Jafvert CT, Whelton AJ. Emergency responder and public health considerations for plastic sewer lining chemical waste exposures in indoor environments. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 422:126832. [PMID: 34449354 PMCID: PMC9614704 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 07/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) manufacturing process is used to repair buried pipes, and its waste commonly discharged into the air can enter nearby buildings. Exposure can prompt illness and the need for medical care. A mass balance model was applied to estimate indoor styrene concentrations due to intrusion of CIPP emissions through plumbing under different bathroom ventilation conditions. To better understand building contamination and recommend emergency response actions, calculations to estimate chemical intrusion through plumbing were developed. Field reports and study calculations showed that contractor-applied external pressures during plastic manufacture have and can displace plumbing trap water seals. Modeled styrene vapor concentrations that entered the building (1, 300, 1000 ppm) were similar to those measured at CIPP worksites. Modeling revealed that in some cases, bathroom exhaust fan operation during a CIPP project may increase indoor styrene concentrations due to enhanced entrainment of styrene-laden air from the sink and toilet. However, styrene concentrations decreased with increasing air leakage across the bathroom door due to reduced suction from the plumbing system. CIPP waste discharge should be treated as a hazardous material release and can pose a threat to human health. Immediate building evacuation, respiratory protection, provision of medical assistance, source elimination, and building decontamination are recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoorae Noh
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Brandon E Boor
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
| | - Jonathan H Shannahan
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Cary D Troy
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Chad T Jafvert
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; Division of Ecological and Environmental Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Andrew J Whelton
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; Division of Ecological and Environmental Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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Teimouri Sendesi SM, Noh Y, Nuruddin M, Boor BE, Howarter JA, Youngblood JP, Jafvert CT, Whelton AJ. An emerging mobile air pollution source: outdoor plastic liner manufacturing sites discharge VOCs into urban and rural areas. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2020; 22:1828-1841. [PMID: 32852018 DOI: 10.1039/d0em00190b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The in situ manufacture of cured-in-place-pipe (CIPP) plastic liners in damaged sewer pipes is an emerging mobile source of anthropogenic air pollution. Evidence indicates volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can be released before, during, and after manufacture. The chemical composition of a popular uncured styrene-based CIPP resin was examined, along with the VOCs that remained in the new cured composite. The roles of curing temperature and heating time in waste discharged into the air were examined. Uncured resin contained approximately 39 wt% VOCs. Multiple hazardous air pollutants were present, however, 61 wt% of the uncured resin was not chemically identified. A substantial mass of VOCs (8.87 wt%) was emitted into the air during manufacture, and all cured composites contained about 3 wt% VOCs. Some VOCs were created during manufacture. Curing temperature (65.5-93.3 °C) and heating time (25-100 min) did not cause different composite VOC loadings. High styrene air concentrations inhibited the detection of other VOCs in air. It is estimated that tens of tons of VOCs may be emitted at a single CIPP manufacturing site. Regulators should consider monitoring, and potentially regulating, these growing mobile air pollution and volatile chemical product sources as they are operating in urban and rural areas often in close proximity to residential and commercial buildings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yoorae Noh
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA 47907.
| | - Md Nuruddin
- School of Materials Engineering, Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering, 701 West Stadium Avenue, West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907-2045.
| | - Brandon E Boor
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA 47907.
| | - John A Howarter
- School of Materials Engineering, Division of Environmental & Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering, 701 West Stadium Avenue, West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907-2045.
| | - Jeffrey P Youngblood
- School of Materials Engineering, Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering, 701 West Stadium Avenue, West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907-2045.
| | - Chad T Jafvert
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Division of Environmental & Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA 47907.
| | - Andrew J Whelton
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Division of Environmental & Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA 47907.
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Müller A, Österlund H, Marsalek J, Viklander M. The pollution conveyed by urban runoff: A review of sources. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 709:136125. [PMID: 31905584 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Urban stormwater and snowmelt pollution contributes significantly to the deterioration of surface waters quality in many locations. Consequently, the sources of such pollution have been studied for the past 50 years, with the vehicular transportation sector and the atmospheric deposition identified early as the major pollution sources. In search for mitigation of this pollution, source controls, besides other measures, were recognised as effective pollution mitigation tools, whose successful implementation requires a good knowledge of pollution sources. Even though great research efforts have been exerted to document specific sources of urban runoff pollution, or specific groups of pollutants present in urban runoff, a comprehensive overview of all known contributing sources is still missing. This review contributes to closing this gap by compiling findings of previous research and critically synthesizing the current knowledge of various stormwater pollution sources. As the emphasis is placed on the sources, the related issues of implications for urban surface water quality and possible source controls for individual sources are touched upon just briefly, where required. The review showed that the atmospheric deposition, vehicular transportation-related activities and metallic building envelopes continue to be among the major pollution sources, which have been studied in a far greater detail than other sources. Furthermore, it was noted that because of the rapid advances in clean manufacturing and pollution control technologies, a large part of the body of data on stormwater quality available in the literature should be considered as historical data, which may no longer describe well the current conditions. Progressing historical data obsolescence, combined with continuing releases of new materials and chemicals, and, in some cases of new substances of potential concern, into the environment, suggests that the identification of important stormwater runoff/snowmelt pollution sources, and the associated pollutants, has been and will remain to be a work in progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Müller
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87 Luleå, Sweden.
| | - Heléne Österlund
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87 Luleå, Sweden
| | - Jiri Marsalek
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87 Luleå, Sweden
| | - Maria Viklander
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87 Luleå, Sweden
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7
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Kobos L, Teimouri Sendesi SM, Whelton AJ, Boor BE, Howarter JA, Shannahan J. In vitro toxicity assessment of emitted materials collected during the manufacture of water pipe plastic linings. Inhal Toxicol 2019; 31:131-146. [PMID: 31187656 DOI: 10.1080/08958378.2019.1621966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Objectives: US water infrastructure is in need of widespread repair due to age-related deterioration. Currently, the cured-in-place (CIPP) procedure is the most common method for water pipe repair. This method involves the on-site manufacture of a new polymer composite plastic liner within the damaged pipe. The CIPP process can release materials resulting in occupational and public health concerns. To understand hazards associated with CIPP-related emission exposures, an in vitro toxicity assessment was performed. Materials and Methods: Mouse alveolar epithelial and alveolar macrophage cell lines and condensates collected at 3 worksites utilizing styrene-based resins were utilized for evaluations. All condensate samples were normalized based on the major emission component, styrene. Further, a styrene-only exposure group was used as a control to determine mixture related toxicity. Results: Cytotoxicity differences were observed between worksite samples, with the CIPP worksite 4 sample inducing the most cell death. A proteomic evaluation was performed, which demonstrated styrene-, worksite-, and cell-specific alterations. This examination of protein expression changes determined potential biomarkers of exposure including transglutaminase 2, advillin, collagen type 1, perilipin-2, and others. Pathway analysis of exposure-induced proteomic alterations identified MYC and p53 to be regulators of cellular responses. Protein changes were also related to pathways involved in cell damage, immune response, and cancer. Conclusions: Together these findings demonstrate potential risks associated with the CIPP procedure as well as variations between worksites regarding emissions and toxicity. Our evaluation identified biological pathways that require a future evaluation and also demonstrates that exposure assessment of CIPP worksites should examine multiple chemical components beyond styrene, as many cellular responses were styrene-independent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Kobos
- a School of Health Sciences, College of Human and Health Sciences , Purdue University , West Lafayette , IN , USA
| | - Seyedeh Mahboobeh Teimouri Sendesi
- b Lyles School of Civil Engineering and Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering , College of Engineering, Purdue University , West Lafayette , IN , USA
| | - Andrew J Whelton
- b Lyles School of Civil Engineering and Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering , College of Engineering, Purdue University , West Lafayette , IN , USA
| | - Brandon E Boor
- b Lyles School of Civil Engineering and Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering , College of Engineering, Purdue University , West Lafayette , IN , USA
| | - John A Howarter
- c Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, and School of Materials Engineering, College of Engineering , Purdue University , West Lafayette , IN , USA
| | - Jonathan Shannahan
- a School of Health Sciences, College of Human and Health Sciences , Purdue University , West Lafayette , IN , USA
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Ra K, Teimouri Sendesi SM, Nuruddin M, Zyaykina NN, Conkling EN, Boor BE, Jafvert CT, Howarter JA, Youngblood JP, Whelton AJ. Considerations for emission monitoring and liner analysis of thermally manufactured sewer cured-in-place-pipes (CIPP). JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2019; 371:540-549. [PMID: 30877867 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.02.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 02/02/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Cured-in-place-pipes (CIPP) are plastic liners chemically manufactured inside existing damaged sewer pipes. They are gaining popularity in North America, Africa, Asia, Europe, and Oceania. Volatile and semi-volatile organic compound (VOC/SVOC) emissions from storm sewer CIPP installations were investigated at a dedicated outdoor research site. Tedlar bag, sorbent tube, and photoionization detector (PID) air sampling was conducted for five steam-CIPP installations and was coupled with composite characterizations. New CIPPs contained up to 2.21 wt% volatile material and only 6-31% chemical mass extracted per CIPP was identified. Each 6.1 m [20 ft] liner contained an estimated 5-10 kg [11-22 lbs] of residual chemical. Extracted chemicals included hazardous air pollutants and suspected and known carcinogens that were not reported by others. These included monomers, monomer oxidation products, antioxidants, initiator degradation products, and a plasticizer. PID signals did not accurately represent styrene air concentration differing sometimes by 10s- to 1000s-fold. Multiple VOCs found in air samples likely affected PID responses. Styrene (>86.4 ppmv) and methylene chloride (>1.56 ppmv) air concentrations were likely greater onsite and phenol was also detected. Additional studies are needed to examine pollutant emissions so process monitoring can be improved, and environment impacts and associated human exposures can be minimized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyungyeon Ra
- Division of Ecological and Environmental Engineering, 500 Central Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA.
| | | | - Md Nuruddin
- School of Materials Engineering, 701 W Stadium Avenue, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA.
| | - Nadezhda N Zyaykina
- Division of Ecological and Environmental Engineering, 500 Central Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA; Lyles School of Civil Engineering, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA.
| | - Emily N Conkling
- Division of Ecological and Environmental Engineering, 500 Central Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA.
| | - Brandon E Boor
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA.
| | - Chad T Jafvert
- Division of Ecological and Environmental Engineering, 500 Central Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA; Lyles School of Civil Engineering, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA.
| | - John A Howarter
- Division of Ecological and Environmental Engineering, 500 Central Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA; Lyles School of Civil Engineering, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA.
| | - Jeffrey P Youngblood
- School of Materials Engineering, 701 W Stadium Avenue, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA.
| | - Andrew J Whelton
- Division of Ecological and Environmental Engineering, 500 Central Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA; Lyles School of Civil Engineering, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907, IN, USA.
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