Disentangling the influence of microplastics and their chemical additives on a model detritivore system

Microplastic pollution and nutrient enrichment shift the diet of freshwater macroinvertebrates

Microplastic pollution poses a global threat to freshwater ecosystems, with laboratory experiments indicating potential toxic impacts through chemical toxicity, physical abrasion, and false satiation. Bioplastics have emerged as a potential greener alternative to traditional oil-based plastics. Yet, their environmental effects remain unclear, particularly at scales relevant to the natural environment. Additionally, the interactive impacts of microplastics with other environmental stressors, such as nutrient enrichment, are poorly understood and rarely studied. Under natural conditions organisms might be able to mitigate the toxic effects of microplastics by shifting their diet, but this ability may be compromised by other stressors. This study combines an outdoor mesocosm experiment and stable isotope analysis to determine changes in the trophic niches of three freshwater invertebrate species exposed to conventional (HDPE) and bio-based biodegradable (PLA) microplastics at two concentrations, both independently and combined with nutrient enrichment. Exposure to microplastics altered the isotopic niches of two of the invertebrate species, with nutrient enrichment mediating this effect. Moreover, the effects of microplastics were consistent regardless of their type or concentration. Under enriched conditions, two of the species exposed to microplastics shifted to a specialised diet compared with controls, whereas little difference was observed between the isotopic niches of those exposed to microplastic and controls under ambient nutrient conditions. Additionally, PLA was estimated to support 24 % of the diet of one species, highlighting the potential assimilation of bioplastics by biota and possible implications. Overall, these findings suggest that the toxic effects of microplastics suggested from laboratory studies might not manifest under real-world conditions. However, this study does demonstrate that subtle sublethal effects occur even at environmentally realistic microplastic concentrations. The crucial role of nutrient enrichment in mediating microplastic effects underscores the importance of considering microplastic pollution in the context of other environmental stressors.

Characterization of the transcriptional effects of the plastic additive dibutyl phthalate alone and in combination with microplastic on the green-lipped mussel Perna canaliculus

The presence and persistence of microplastics (MPs) in diverse aquatic environments are of global concern. Microplastics can impact marine organisms via direct physical interaction and the release of potentially harmful chemical additives incorporated into the plastic. These chemicals are physically bound to the plastic matrix and can leach out. The hazards associated with chemical additives to exposed organisms is not well characterized. We investigated the hazards of plastic additives leaching from plastic. We used the common plasticizer dibutyl phthalate (DBP) as a chemical additive proxy and the New Zealand green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) as a model. We used early-adult P. canaliculus exposed to combinations of virgin and DBP-spiked polyvinyl chloride (PVC), MPs, and DBP alone for 7 days. Whole transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) was conducted to assess whether leaching of DBP from MPs poses a hazard. The differences between groups were evaluated using pairwise permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA), and all treatments were significantly different from controls. In addition, a significant difference was seen between DBP and PVC MP treatment. Transcriptome analysis revealed that mussels exposed to DBP alone had the most differentially expressed genes (914), followed by PVC MP + DBP (448), and PVC MP (250). Gene ontology functional analysis revealed that the most enriched pathway types were in cellular metabolism, immune response, and endocrine disruption. Microplastic treatments enriched numerous pathways related to cellular metabolism and immune response. The combined exposure of PVC MP + DBP appears to cause combined effects, suggesting that DBP is bioavailable to the exposed mussels in the PVC MP + DBP treatment. Our results support the hypothesis that chemical additives are potentially an important driver of MP toxicity. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:1604-1614. © 2024 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Microplastics alter the leaf litter breakdown rates and the decomposer community in subtropical lentic microhabitats

Microplastics, pervasive pollutants in aquatic environments, have been primarily studied for their impact on marine ecosystems. However, their effects on freshwater systems, particularly in forested phytotelmata habitats, remain understudied in Subtropical systems. This research examines the influence of varying microplastic concentrations (0.0, 200, 2,000, 20,000, and 200,000 ppm) on leaf litter breakdown of Inga vera (in bags of 10 and 0.05 mm mesh) and the naturally associated invertebrate community occurring in forested phytotelmata. The study employs an experimental design with microplastic concentration treatments in artificial microcosms (buckets with 800 mL of rainwater) arranged in an area of Atlantic Rain Forest native vegetation of Subtropical systems. The results indicate that elevated concentrations of microplastics may enhance leaf litter breakdown (6-8%), irrespective of the bag mesh, attributed to heightened decomposer activity and biofilm formation. Consequently, this contributes to increased invertebrate richness (33-37%) and greater shredder abundance (21-37%). Indicator analysis revealed that Culicidae, Stratiomyidae, Chironomidae, Empididae, Planorbidae, and Ceratopogonidae were indicative of some microplastic concentrations. These findings underscore the significance of accounting for microplastics when evaluating the taxonomic and trophic characteristics of invertebrate communities, as well as the leaf breakdown process in Subtropical systems.

Role of benzophenone-3 additive in the effect of polyethylene microplastics on Daphnia magna population dynamics

The adverse effects of microplastics (MPs) on Daphnia magna have been extensively studied; however, their population-level effects are relatively unknown. This study investigated the effect of polyethylene MP fragments (33.90 ± 17.44 μm) and benzophenone-3 (BP-3), which is a widely used plastic additive (2.91 ± 0.02% w/w), on D. magna population dynamics in a 34-day microcosm experiment. In the growth phase, neither MP nor MP/BP-3 fragments changed the population size of D. magna compared with the control. However, MP/BP-3 fragments significantly reduced (p < 0.05) the population biomass compared to that of the control, whereas MP fragments did not induce a significant reduction. The MP/BP-3 group had a significantly higher (p < 0.05) neonate proportion than that in the control and MP groups. MP/BP-3 fragments upregulated usp and downregulated ecrb, ftz-f1, and hr3, altering gene expression in the ecdysone signaling pathway linked to D. magna growth and development. These findings suggested that BP-3 in MP/BP-3 fragments may disrupt neonatal growth, thereby decreasing population biomass. In the decline phase, MP fragments significantly decreased (p < 0.05) the population size and biomass of D. magna compared with the control and MP/BP-3 fragments. This study highlights the importance of plastic additives in the population-level ecotoxicity of MPs.

Effects of Fe3O4 NMs based Fenton-like reactions on biodegradable plastic bags in compost: New insight into plastisphere community succession, co-composting efficiency and free radical in situ aging theory

Biodegradable plastic bags (BPBs), meant for eco-friendly, often inadequately degrade in compost, leading to microplastic pollution. In this study, the effect of Fenton-like reaction with Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NMs) on the plastisphere microorganisms' evolution and the BPBs' aging mechanism was revealed by co-composting of food waste with BPBs for 40 days. The establishment of the Fenton-like reaction was confirmed, with the addition of Fenton-like reagent treatments resulting in an increase of 57.67% and 37.75% in H2O2 levels during the composting, compared to the control group. Moreover, the structural characterization reveals that increasing oxygen content continuously generates reactive free radicals on the surface, leading to the formation of oxidative cavities. This process results in random chain-breaking, significantly reducing molecular weights by 39.27% and 38.81%, thus showcasing a deep-seated transformation in the plastic's molecular structure. Furthermore, the microbial network suggested that the Fenton-like reaction enriched plastisphere keystone species, thus accelerating the BPBs' aging. Additionally, the Fenton-like reaction improved compost maturity and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. These results reveal the bio-chemical mechanisms of BPBs aging and random chain-breaking by the Fenton-like reaction, under alternating oxidative/anoxic conditions of composting and provide a new insight to resolve the BPBs' pollutions.

Microplastic interactions in the agroecosystems: methodological advances and limitations in quantifying microplastics from agricultural soil

The instantaneous growth of the world population is intensifying the pressure on the agricultural sector. On the other hand, the critical climate changes and increasing load of pollutants in the soil are imposing formidable challenges on agroecosystems, affecting productivity and quality of the crops. Microplastics are among the most prevalent pollutants that have already invaded all terrestrial and aquatic zones. The increasing microplastic concentration in soil critically impacts crop plants growth and yield. The current review elaborates on the behaviors of microplastics in soil and their impact on soil quality and plant growth. The study shows that microplastics alter the soil's biophysical properties, including water-holding capacity, bulk density, aeration, texture, and microbial composition. In addition, microplastics interact with multiple pollutants, such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals, making them more bioavailable to crop plants. The study also provides a detailed insight into the current techniques available for the isolation and identification of soil microplastics, providing solutions to some of the critical challenges faced and highlighting the research gaps. In our study, we have taken a holistic, comprehensive approach by analysing and comparing various interconnected aspects to provide a deeper understanding of all research perspectives on microplastics in agroecosystems.

Modeling the effect of fish migration on the horizontal distribution of microplastics in freshwater and ecological risks in the food web: Influence of habitat

Microplastics (MPs < 5 mm) pollution is a widespread phenomenon in freshwater ecosystems. While the role of physiochemical factors in the migration and distribution of MPs is understood, the impact of biological migration remains less clear. The influence of nekton migration determined by habitat suitability on the distribution of MPs and the consequent ecological risks to the regional food web is investigated in the freshwater environment by using Baiyangdian Lake (China) as a case study. The key findings reveal that fish migration significantly alters the horizontal distribution of MPs in the water environment, with a higher degree of fish aggregation in high suitability habitats leading to an increased presence of MPs due to their ingestion and excretion behaviors. In both high and low suitability habitats, MPs are found to bioconcentrate in fish, suggesting a significant risk to aquatic ecosystems. Despite the lack of evidence supporting MPs biomagnification, the results indicate that MPs are more likely to be biomagnified within the food web of high suitability habitats due to the enhanced foraging capabilities of aquatic organisms. These findings highlight the critical need to consider biological factors, such as nekton migration, in understanding and addressing MPs pollution in freshwater ecosystems.

Plastic and paint debris in marine protected areas of Peru

Contamination with anthropogenic debris, such as plastic and paint particles, has been widely investigated in the global marine environment. However, there is a lack of information regarding their presence in marine protected areas (MPAs). In the present study, the abundance, distribution, and chemical characteristics of microplastics (MPs; <5 mm), mesoplastics (MePs; 5-25 mm), and paint particles were investigated in multiple environmental compartments of two MPAs from Peru. The characteristics of MPs across surface water, bottom sediments, and fish guts were similar, primarily dominated by blue fibers. On the other hand, MePs and large MPs (1-5 mm) were similar across sandy beaches. Several particles were composite materials consisting of multiple layers confirmed as alkyd resins by Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy, which were typical indicators of marine coatings. The microstructure of paint particles showed differentiated topography across layers, as well as different elemental compositions. Some layers displayed amorphous structures with Ba-, Cr-, and Ti-based additives. However, the leaching and impact of potentially toxic additives in paint particles require further investigation. The accumulation of multiple types of plastic and paint debris in MPAs could pose a threat to conservation goals. The current study contributed to the knowledge regarding anthropogenic debris contamination in MPAs and further elucidated the physical and chemical properties of paint particles in marine environments. While paint particles may look similar to MPs and MePs, more attention should be given to these contaminants in places where intense maritime activity takes place.

(Micro)Plastics Are Toxic Pollutants

Plastics, including microplastics, have generally been regarded as harmful to organisms because of their physical characteristics. There has recently been a call to understand and regard them as persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic. This review elaborates on the reasons that microplastics in particular should be considered as "toxic pollutants". This view is supported by research demonstrating that they contain toxic chemicals within their structure and also adsorb additional chemicals, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides, metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), from the environment. Furthermore, these chemicals can be released into tissues of animals that consume microplastics and can be responsible for the harmful effects observed on biological processes such as development, physiology, gene expression, and behavior. Leachates, weathering, and biofilm play important roles in the interactions between microplastics and biota. Global policy efforts by the United Nations Environmental Assembly via the international legally binding treaty to address global plastic pollution should consider the designation of harmful plastics (e.g., microplastics) with associated hazardous chemicals as toxic pollutants.

A domesticated photoautotrophic microbial community as a biofilm model system for analyzing the influence of plastic surfaces on invertebrate grazers in limnic environments

The environmental fate of plastic particles in water bodies is influenced by microbial biofilm formation. Invertebrate grazers may be affected when foraging biofilms on plastics compared to biofilms on natural substrata but the mechanistic basis for these effects is unknown. For analyzing these effects in ecotoxicological assays stable and reproducible biofilm communities are required that are related to the environmental site of interest. Here, a defined biofilm community was established and used to perform grazing experiments with a freshwater snail. For this, snippets of different plastic materials were incubated in the photic zone of three different freshwater sites. Amplicon sequencing of biofilms formed on these snippets showed that the site of incubation and not the plastic material dominated the microbial community composition. From these biofilms, individual microbial strains as well as photoautotrophic consortia were isolated; these consortia consisted of heterotrophic bacteria that were apparently nourished by microalga. While biofilms formed by defined dual cultures of a microalga and an Alphaproteobacterium were not accepted by the snail P. fontinalis, a photoautotrophic consortium (Co_3) sustained growth and metabolism of this grazer. Amplicon sequencing revealed that consortium Co_3, which could be stably maintained on solid medium under photoautotrophic conditions, reproducibly formed biofilms of a defined composition on three different plastic materials and on glass surfaces. In conclusion, our study shows that the generation of domesticated photoautotrophic microbial communities is a valid novel approach for establishing laboratory ecotoxicological assays with higher environmental relevance than those based on defined microbiota.

Microplastic patterns in riverine waters and leaf litter: Leaf bag technique to investigate the microplastic accumulation trends in lotic ecosystems

Microplastics (MPs) are one of the major ecological concerns of the last years and despite the increasing interest and the rise of many studies regarding freshwater habitats, many aspects about distribution patterns, transport pathways and impacts of MPs in those systems need to be investigated. The present study characterizes the temporal trends of MP concentrations in waters of a riverine stretch of the northeastern Italy, subject to flow rate variations and investigates the MP accumulations patterns in the leaf litter, simulated in situ via leaf bag technique. MP concentrations in the water were significantly and negatively correlated to the flow rate regimes, with higher concentrations observed during low discharge periods. MPs accumulation in leaf bags agreed with trends observed in the water and the presence of wastewater discharge points positively affects the levels of MP contaminations within the leaf bags. These findings seem to suggest that the maintenance of a hydrological regime at relatively high levels in the investigated system could allow to maintain the self-purifying riverine processes and the disposal of microplastics like any other polluting substance. The use of leaf bag technique for the purpose to investigate MP accumulation trends on field provided useful information, is easy to modulate in terms of time periods and allow to record the evolution of the MP patterns also in relation to high flow rate episodes. Our results suggest that the method can be employed in new a perspective, to improve the knowledge about one of the major threats of the Anthropocene.

UV-induced microplastics (MPs) aging leads to comprehensive toxicity

Herein, the toxicity of 4 MPs and additives released from MPs during UV-aging was quantitatively evaluated by the transcriptional effect level index (TELI) based on E. coli whole-cell microarray assay, and MPs-antibiotics complex pollutants. Results showed that MPs and these additives had high toxicity potential, the maximum TELI was 5.68/6.85 for polystyrene (PS)/bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). There were many similar toxic pathways between MPs and additives, indicating that part of the toxicity risk of MPs was caused by the release of additives. MPs were compounded with antibiotics, the toxicity value changed significantly. The TELI values of amoxicillin (AMX) + polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and ciprofloxacin (CIP) + PVC were as high as 12.30 and 14.58 (P < 0.05). Three antibiotics all decreased the toxicity of PS and had little effect on polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE). The combined toxicity mechanism of MPs and antibiotics was very complicated, and the results could be divided into four types: MPs (PVC/PE + CIP), antibiotics (PVC + TC, PS + AMX/ tetracycline (TC)/CIP, PE + TC), both (PP + AMX/TC/CIP), or brand-new mechanisms (PVC + AMX).

Combined toxicity of micro/nanoplastics loaded with environmental pollutants to organisms and cells: Role, effects, and mechanism

Micro/nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) are ubiquitous in the environment and living organisms have been exposed to these substances for a long time. When MPs/NPs enter different organisms, they transport various pollutants, including heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, drugs, bacteria, and viruses, from the environment. On this basis, this paper summarizes the combined toxicity induced by MPs/NPs accumulating contaminants from the environment and entering organisms through a systematic review of 162 articles. Moreover, the factors influencing toxic interactions are critically discussed, thus highlighting the dominant role of the relative concentrations of contaminants in the combined toxic effects. Furthermore, for the first time, we describe the threats posed by MPs/NPs combined with other pollutants to human health, as well as their cytotoxic behavior and mechanism. We found that the "Trojan horse" effect of nanoplastics can increase the bioaccessibility of environmental pollutants, thus increasing the carcinogenic risk to humans. Simultaneously, the complex pollutants entering the cells are observed to be constantly dissociated due to the transport of lysosomes. However, current research on the intracellular release of MP/NP-loaded pollutants is relatively poor, which hinders the accurate in vivo toxicity assessment of combined pollutants. Based on the findings of our critical review, we recommend analyzing the toxic effects by clarifying the dose relationship of each component pollutant in cells, which is challenging yet crucial to exploring the toxic mechanism of combined pollution. In the future, our findings can contribute to establishing a system modeling the complete load-translocation toxicological mechanism of MP/NP-based composite pollutants.