Safrole induced cytotoxicity, DNA damage, and apoptosis in macrophages via reactive oxygen species generation and Akt phosphorylation

The Identification and Cytotoxic Evaluation of Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) and Its Substituents

The aril and seed of nutmeg, Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Myristicaceae), hold significant value in various industries globally. Our preliminary research found two morphological variations: a globose shape and an oval shape. Due to these different characteristics, the safety of consumers is of primary concern. Thus, authentication and comparative pharmacological and toxicity analyses are necessary. In this study, pharmacognostic and advanced phytochemical analyses, DNA barcoding, cytotoxicity, and the anti-nitric oxide production of commercial Thai nutmeg were examined. Via morphologic examinations and TLC fingerprinting, all the sampled aril and seed were categorized into globose and oval-shaped groups. The results of HPLC, GC-MS, and LC-MS/MS experiments revealed distinct differences between these groups. The DNA barcoding of the trnH-psbA region using the BLAST method and neighbor-joining tree analyses confirmed the globose nutmeg as M. fragrans and the oval-shaped variant as M. argentea. A comparison was then carried out between the potential toxicity and anti-inflammatory capabilities of M. fragrans and M. argentea. Cytotoxicity tests on HaCaT, 3T3-L1, Caco-2, HEK293, and RAW264.7 were performed using both methanolic extracts and volatile oil from the arils and seeds of both species. This study concludes that blending or substituting these two species maintains their therapeutic integrity without posing safety concerns.

Evaluating Alterations of the Oral Microbiome and Its Link to Oral Cancer among Betel Quid Chewers: Prospecting Reversal through Probiotic Intervention

Areca nut and slaked lime, with or without tobacco wrapped in Piper betle leaf, prepared as betel quid, is extensively consumed as a masticatory product in many countries across the world. Betel Quid can promote the malignant transformation of oral lesions as well as trigger benign cellular and molecular changes. In the oral cavity, it causes changes at the compositional level in oral microbiota called dysbiosis. This dysbiosis may play an important role in Oral Cancer in betel quid chewers. The abnormal presence and increase of bacteria Fusobacterium nucleatum, Capnocytophaga gingivalis, Prevotella melaninogenica, Peptostreptococcus sp., Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Streptococcus mitis in saliva and/or other oral sites of the cancer patients has attracted frequent attention for its association with oral cancer development. In the present review, the authors have analysed the literature reports to revisit the oncogenic potential of betel quid and oral microbiome alterations, evaluating the potential of oral microbiota both as a driver and biomarker of oral cancer. The authors have also shared a perspective that the restoration of local microbiota can become a potentially therapeutic or prophylactic strategy for the delay or reversal of lip and oral cavity cancers, especially in high-risk population groups.

Prescription system to calculate precise doses of Chinese herbal medicine to avoid toxic effects

Background and objectives

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is a therapeutic system which has been practiced for thousands of years. Although for much of its history the decoction of medicinal herbs was the most common method of consuming the herbal treatments, TCM prescriptions are now primarily prepared using concentrated Chinese herbal extracts (CCHE) in powder or granular form. However, determining the precise dose of each single Chinese herbal constituent within a prescription creates a challenge in clinical practice due to the potential risk of toxicity. To alleviate this, we invented the Chinese Intelligence Prescription System (CIPS) to calculate the exact dose of each single herb within an individual prescription.

Methods

In this study, we applied CIPS in a real-world setting to analyze clinical prescriptions collected and prepared at the TCM Pharmacy of China Medical University Hospital (CMUH).

Results

Our investigation revealed that 3% of all prescriptions filled in a 1-month period contained inexact dosages, suggesting that more than 170,000 prescriptions filled in Taiwan in a given month may contain potentially toxic components. We further analyzed the data to determine the excess dosages and outline the possible associated side effects.

Conclusions

In conclusion, CIPS offers TCM practitioners the ability to prepare exact Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) prescriptions in order to avoid toxic effects, thereby ensuring patient safety.

Formation of RNA adducts resulting from metabolic activation of spice ingredient safrole mediated by P450 enzymes and sulfotransferases

Safrole (SFL) is an IARC class 2B carcinogen. To better understand the mechanism involved in SFL toxicity, we explored the potential interactions between SFL metabolites and RNA. Three guanosine adducts (G1-G3), two adenosine adducts (A1-A2), and two cytosine adducts (C1-C2) were detected by LC-MS/MS in mouse liver S9 incubations, cultured mouse primary hepatocytes, and liver tissues of mice after exposure to SFL. These adducts were chemically synthesized, and one of the guanosine adducts was structurally characterized by ¹H-NMR. Studies in vitro and in vivo showed that SFL was oxidized by cytochrome P450 enzymes to the corresponding 1'-hydroxyl metabolite which was further metabolized by sulfotransferases to form allylic sulfate esters. The formed reactive intermediate(s) subsequently reacted with bases of RNA, leading to RNA adduction, which could play a partial role in the toxicities of SFL through the alteration of RNA biochemical properties and interruption of RNA functions.

Investigating regulated signaling pathways in therapeutic targeting of non-small cell lung carcinoma

Non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) is the most common malignancy worldwide. The signaling cascades are stimulated via genetic modifications in upstream signaling molecules, which affect apoptotic, proliferative, and differentiation pathways. Dysregulation of these signaling cascades causes cancer-initiating cell proliferation, cancer development, and drug resistance. Numerous efforts in the treatment of NSCLC have been undertaken in the past few decades, enhancing our understanding of the mechanisms of cancer development and moving forward to develop effective therapeutic approaches. Modifications of transcription factors and connected pathways are utilized to develop new treatment options for NSCLC. Developing designed inhibitors targeting specific cellular signaling pathways in tumor progression has been recommended for the therapeutic management of NSCLC. This comprehensive review provided deeper mechanistic insights into the molecular mechanism of action of various signaling molecules and their targeting in the clinical management of NSCLC.

Antileishmanial Screening, Cytotoxicity, and Chemical Composition of Essential Oils: A Special Focus on Piper callosum Essential Oil

Leishmania amazonensis is the etiological agent of tegumentary leishmaniasis, a disease characterized by the emergence of cutaneous and mucocutaneous ulcerated lesions that can evolve into severe destruction of skin tissue. Treatment of the disease is often accompanied by high toxicity and variable efficacy. Essential oils stand out for having diverse pharmacological properties. Here, we screened a panel of fourteen essential oils for their anti-L. amazonensis activity, cytotoxicity, and chemical profile. Lippia sidoides (LSEO) and Piper callosum (PCEO) oils displayed the best anti-promastigote and anti-amastigote activities with IC₅₀ of 31 and 21 μg/ml, respectively. PCEO was the safest oil with a desirable selectivity index >10. In addition, PCEO showed no cytotoxicity against the VERO line and erythrocytes. PCEO-treated amastigotes displayed mitochondrial membrane depolarization and high levels of intracellular ROS. Safrole (54.72 %) was the main component of PCEO. The results described here highlight the use of essential oils to combat tegumentary leishmaniasis.

Overexpression of DEC1 in the epithelium of OSF promotes mesenchymal transition via activating FAK/Akt signal axis

BACKGROUND

Previous studies on oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) mostly focused on the activation of fibroblasts and collagen metabolism, while little involved in the epithelium. As we have reported the role of differentiated embryo chondrocyte expressed gene 1 (DEC1) in oral cancer and other precancerous lesions, this research aimed to explore its role in the OSF epithelium.

METHODS

Expression of DEC1 and other proteins were investigated in tissue array constructed with 33 OSF and 14 normal oral mucosa (NOM) tissues. Human oral keratinocytes treated with arecoline and/or hypoxia were used to simulate OSF epithelium and detected for morphological and protein alterations. Inhibition of DEC1 was used to explore its mediating role. Finally, animal models of OSF constructed by locally arecoline injecting in buccal mucosa were used to verify our findings.

RESULTS

DEC1 overexpression could be detected in the epithelium of OSF compared with that in NOM followed by phosphorylated FAK and Akt, and DEC1 showed a significant positive correlation with them. Cytology experiment revealed that OSF-like treatment could upregulate DEC1 expression followed by phosphorylated FAK, Akt, but inhibit E-cadherin, while knockdown of DEC1 could suppress the effects. Additionally, OSF mice revealed higher expression of DEC1 in the epithelium of buccal mucosa, along with synchronized alterations of phosphorylated FAK and Akt.

CONCLUSION

In the epithelium of OSF, overexpression of DEC1 induced activation of FAK/Akt signal axis, caused mesenchymal transition in epithelial cells, and may promote malignant transformation of OSF. Targeting DEC1 in OSF could be promising a new target for the diagnosis and treatment of this process.

Dissecting dietary and semisynthetic volatile phenylpropenes: A compile of their distribution, food properties, health effects, metabolism and toxicities

Phenylpropenes represent a major subclass of plant volatiles, including eugenol, and (E)-anethole. They contribute to the flavor and aroma of many chief herbs and spices, to exert distinct notes in food, i.e., spicy anise- and clove-like to fruit. Asides from their culinary use, they appear to exert general health effects, whereas some effects are specific, e.g., eugenol being a natural local anesthetic. This review represents the most comprehensive overview of phenylpropenes with respect to their chemical structures, different health effects, and their food applications as flavor and food preservatives. Side effects and toxicities of these compounds represent the second main part of this review, as some were reported for certain metabolites generated inside the body. Several metabolic reactions mediating for phenylpropenes metabolism in rodents via cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and sulfotransferase (SULT) enzymes are presented being involved in their toxicities. Such effects can be lessened by influencing their pharmacokinetics through a matrix-derived combination effect via administration of herbal extracts containing SULT inhibitors, i.e., nevadensin in sweet basil. Moreover, structural modification of phenylpropanes appears to improve their effects and broaden their applications. Hence, such review capitalizing on phenylpropenes can help optimize their applications in nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and food applications.

Amphiphilic copolymers grafted on monodisperse magnetic microspheres as an efficient adsorbent for the extraction of safrole in the plasma

Polystyrene (PS) microsphere is a kind of attractive extracting medium due to its high stability in different matrices and its particle size can be controlled. The attachment of amphiphilic copolymers to the PS microsphere surface can overcome the drawback of PS relevant to its hydrophobic nature and low wettability. In our previous work, the magnetic composite based on PS microsphere (5 µm) and poly (divinylbenzene-co-N-vinylpyrrolidone, DVB-co-NVP) shell was successfully fabricated and applied for the extraction of safrole in cola drinks. However, the large size and ease of sedimentation limited its application in the enrichment of safrole from blood samples. Considering the adjustability of PS microsphere size, we synthesized the porous PS microspheres with the uniform size of 3 µm and then functionalized with Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles and poly (DVB-co-NVP) layer in this work. Using the proposed material as extraction sorbent, a simple and fast magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) method coupled with HPLC was developed for quantification of safrole in the plasma. Under the optimized conditions, the response to safrole was linear in the range of 0.02-12 µg mL^-1, and the limit of detection (LOD) was 0.006 µg mL^-1. Satisfactory recoveries were obtained between 85.67% and 97.74% (spiked at 0.05, 0.2, 2 µg mL^-1) and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) for the above spiked levels of the analyte were below 3.9% (n = 6). The adsorbent can be reused for 6 cycles without a significant loss of extraction capability.

Antitumor and immunoregulatory activities of a novel polysaccharide from Astragalus membranaceus on S180 tumor-bearing mice

The Astragalus membranaceus polysaccharide (APS4) with direct cytotoxicity on various cancer cells has been prepared in our previous study, while the underlying therapeutic role of APS4 on solid tumors in vivo hasn't been investigated yet. Therefore, in this paper, the lymphocytes-mediated antitumor and immunoregulatory activities of APS4 were researched by establishing S180 tumor-bearing mice model. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that APS4 could effectively regulate the percentages of CD3⁺, CD4⁺, CD8⁺ T cells and CD19⁺ B cells in thymus, peripheral blood and spleen of S180 tumor-bearing mice, dose-dependently. H&E staining and cell cycle determination of solid tumors manifested that APS4 treatment could significantly inhibit the growth of solid tumors by inducing cells apoptosis. Furthermore, two-dimensional electrophoresis and western blot analysis further demonstrated that APS4 could activate antitumor-related immune cells and promote anaerobic metabolism of tumor microenvironment, thereby causing the apoptosis of S180 tumor cells. These data implicated that APS4 could be used as a potential dietary supplement for immune enhancement.

Biological evaluation of Safrole oil and Safrole oil Nanoemulgel as antioxidant, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antifungal and anticancer

Background

Safrole is a natural compound extracted from various plants, and has shown various biological activities. The current study aimed to investigate the antioxidant, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and anticancer activity of safrole oil and to study the influence of safrole nanoemulgel on these activities.

Methods

The antioxidant and antidiabetic in-vitro assays were conducted using standard biomedical methods. The safrole oil nanoemulgel was developed using a self-emulsifying technique. Then the antimicrobial activity of the safrole oil and safrole nanoemulgel were performed on different microbial species, and cytotoxicity was determined against Hep3B cancer cell lines using the MTS assay.

Results

Safrole oil showed moderate antioxidant activity compared with standard Trolox, with IC₅₀ value 50.28 ± 0.44 and 1.55 ± 0.32 μg/ml, respectively. Moreover, it had potent α-amylase inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ 11.36 ± 0.67 μg/ml) compared with Acarbose (IC₅₀ value 5.88 ± 0.63). The safrole nanoemulgel had pseudo-plastic behaviour, droplet sizes below 200 nm, a polydispersity index (PDI) below 0.3, and a zeta potential of less than − 30 mV. Safrole oil has potential antimicrobial and anticancer activities, and these activities were improved with safrole nanoemulgel.

Conclusion

The safrole oil may be applied for the prevention and treatment of oxidative stress, diabetes, different microbial species and cancer, and these activities could be improved by nano-carriers.

Back to the Roots-An Overview of the Chemical Composition and Bioactivity of Selected Root-Essential Oils

Since ancient times, plant roots have been widely used in traditional medicine for treating various ailments and diseases due to their beneficial effects. A large number of studies have demonstrated that-besides their aromatic properties-their biological activity can often be attributed to volatile constituents. This review provides a comprehensive overview of investigations into the chemical composition of essential oils and volatile components obtained from selected aromatic roots, including Angelica archangelica, Armoracia rusticana, Carlina sp., Chrysopogon zizanioides, Coleus forskohlii, Inula helenium, Sassafras albidum, Saussurea costus, and Valeriana officinalis. Additionally, their most important associated biological impacts are reported, such as anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, pesticidal, and other miscellaneous properties. Various literature and electronic databases-including PubMed, ScienceDirect, Springer, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Wiley-were screened and data was obtained accordingly. The results indicate the promising properties of root-essential oils and their potential as a source for natural biologically active products for flavor, pharmaceutical, agricultural, and fragrance industries. However, more research is required to further establish the mechanism of action mediating these bioactivities as well as essential oil standardization because the chemical composition often strongly varies depending on external factors.

Rutin-protected BisGMA-induced cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and apoptosis in macrophages through the reduction of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway and induction of antioxidant enzymes

Bisphenol-A-glycidyldimethacrylate (BisGMA) is a resin monomer frequently used in dentin restorative treatments. The leakage of BisGMA monomer from BisGMA-based polymeric resins can lead to cytotoxicity in macrophages. Rutin has various beneficial bioeffects, including antioxidation and antiinflammation. In this study, we found that pretreatment of RAW264.7 macrophages with rutin-inhibited cytotoxicity induced by BisGMA in a concentration-dependent manner. BisGMA-induced apoptosis, which was detected by levels of phosphatidylserine from the internal to the external membrane and formation of sub-G1, and genotoxicity, which was detected by cytokinesis-blocked micronucleus and single-cell gel electrophoresis assays, were inhibited by rutin in a concentration-dependent manner. Rutin suppressed the BisGMA-induced activation of caspase-3 and -9 rather than caspase-8. Rutin inhibited the activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, including cytochrome C release and mitochondria disruption, after macrophages were treated with BisGMA. Finally, BisGMA-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and antioxidant enzyme (AOE) deactivation could be reversed by rutin. Parallel trends were observed in the elevation of AOE activation and inhibition of ROS generation, caspase-3 activity, mitochondrial apoptotic pathway activation, and genotoxicity. These results suggested that rutin suppressed BisGMA-induced cytotoxicity through genotoxicity, the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, and relatively upstream factors, including reduction of ROS generation and induction of AOE.

Ferula L. Plant Extracts and Dose-Dependent Activity of Natural Sesquiterpene Ferutinin: From Antioxidant Potential to Cytotoxic Effects

The employment studies of natural extracts in the prevention and treatment of several diseases highlighted the role of different species of genus Ferula L., belonging to the Apiaceae family, dicotyledonous plants present in many temperate zones of our planet. Ferula communis L. is the main source of sesquiterpene ferutinin, a bioactive compound studied both in vitro and in vivo, because of different effects, such as phytoestrogenic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, but also antiproliferative and cytotoxic activity, performed in a dose-dependent and cell-dependent way. The present review will focus on the molecular mechanisms involved in the different activities of Ferutinin, starting from its antioxidant potential at low doses until its ionophoric property and the subsequent mitochondrial dysfunction induced through administration of high doses, which represent the key point of its anticancer action. Furthermore, we will summarize the data acquired from some experimental studies on different cell types and on several diseases. The results obtained showed an important antioxidant and phytoestrogenic regulation with lack of typical side effects related to estrogenic therapy. The preferential cell death induction for tumor cell lines suggests that ferutinin may have anti-neoplastic properties, and may be used as an antiproliferative and cytotoxic agent in an estrogen dependent and independent manner. Nevertheless, more data are needed to clearly understand the effect of ferutinin in animals before using it as a phytoestrogen or anticancer drug.

Safrole-induced expression of proinflammatory responses is associated with phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase family and the nuclear factor-κB/inhibitor of κB pathway in macrophages

Objective:

Safrole, also called shikimol and Sassafras, is the carcinogenic and phenylpropanoid compound extracted from Sassafras tree and anise, betel, and camphor. Moreover, a high concentration of safrole can be occur in the saliva because of betel nut or areca quid chewing which a common habit observed in Southern and Southeastern Asia. Notably, macrophages are crucial phagocytic cells of the immune system. Nonetheless, to date, no evidence has been reported regarding safrole-induced proinflammatory response and the corresponding mechanism in macrophages.

Materials and Methods:

In the present study, the cytokines expression, NO generation, protein phosphorylation, and expression were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Griess reagent, and Western blot assay, respectively.

Results:

In this study, we determined that safrole induces the generation of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and IL-6 in RAW264.7 macrophages in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, inhibitor of κB (IκB) degradation was caused by safrole in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, the phosphorylation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, including p38 MAPK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase, was induced by safrole began to increase at 10 μM and attained a plateau at 100 μM.

Conclusion:

These results indicated that safrole induces the expression of proinflammatory responses in macrophages through the NF-κB/IκB pathway and its upstream factor, MAPK family phosphorylation.

The structural characteristics of an acid-soluble polysaccharide from Grifola frondosa and its antitumor effects on H22-bearing mice

The edible mushroom G. frondosa has been used as a kind of functional food for the prevention and therapy of various diseases in Asian countries. In the present work, a novel acid-soluble polysaccharide (GFAP) was successfully isolated from G. frondosa under room temperature and hydrochloric acid solution treatment. Results of chemical composition analysis, UV and HPGPC spectra showed that GFAP mainly contained 94.28% of carbohydrate with the average molecular weight of about 644.9 kDa. GC, FT-IR, NMR and methylation analysis further indicated that GFAP was a neutral sugar mainly composed of (1 → 3)-β-D-Glcp and (1 → 3)-α-D-Manp. The in vivo antitumor experiments demonstrated that GFAP could effectively protect thymuses and spleens of tumor-bearing mice and inhibit the growth of H22 solid tumors with the inhibitory rate of 36.72%. Besides, GFAP could significantly improve the activities of NK cells, macrophages, CD19+ B cells and CD4+ T cells, leading to the apoptosis of H22 cells via G0/G1 phase arrested. Our data demonstrated that GFAP holds great application prospect to be a safe and effective antitumor adjuvant in the future.

Evaluation of cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and genotoxicity induced by indium chloride in macrophages through mitochondrial dysfunction and reactive oxygen species generation

Due to rapid advances in the era of electronic technologies, indium has played the important material for the production of liquid crystal display screens in the semiconductor and optoelectronic industries. The present study focuses on evaluating the toxic effects and related mechanisms of indium chloride (InCl₃) on RAW264.7 macrophages. Cytotoxicity was induced by InCl₃ in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. InCl₃ had the ability to induce macrophage death through apoptosis rather than through necrosis. According to the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay and alkaline single-cell gel electrophoresis assay, InCl₃ induced DNA damage, also called genotoxicity, in a concentration-dependent manner. Cysteine-dependent aspartate-directed protease (caspase)-3, -8, and -9 were activated by InCl₃ in a concentration-dependent manner. Mitochondria dysfunction and cytochrome c release from the mitochondria were induced by InCl₃ in a concentration-dependent manner. Downregulation of BCL2 and upregulation of BAD were induced by InCl₃ in a concentration-dependent manner. More, we proposed that InCl₃ treatment generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a concentration-dependent manner. In conclusion, the current study revealed that InCl₃ induced macrophage cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and genotoxicity via a mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathway and ROS generation.

Toxicity of traditional Chinese medicine herbal and mineral products

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been used to treat numerous kinds of diseases for more than 2000 years in eastern Asian countries. A portion of the TCM herbal and mineral products are believed to be toxic according to modern standards, and are still widely prescribed in the clinic. However, some TCM products considered to be non-toxic or low-toxic have been reported to possess significant toxicological effects on different organs in both animal and human models. In this review, we define the term "toxic" in TCM, and then we summarize the advances in pharmacology and toxicology research of Toxic Traditional Chinese Medicine (TTCM), including Chinese aconite (Fu Zi), Arsenic Trioxide, Tripterygium wilfordii Hook f. (Thunder God Vine), herbal drugs derived from plants in the Aristolochiaceae Juss. family (Ma Dou Ling), and other TCM products. Finally, the compatibility art of TCM and modern pharmaceutical approaches to manage undesired toxicity of TTCM is discussed. Promoting pharmacology and toxicology studies of TTCM and non-toxic TCM is critical for the further development and safety of TCM in clinical practice.

Targeting Cancer with Phytochemicals via Their Fine Tuning of the Cell Survival Signaling Pathways

The role of phytochemicals as potential prodrugs or therapeutic substances against tumors has come in the spotlight in the very recent years, thanks to the huge mass of encouraging and promising results of the in vitro activity of many phenolic compounds from plant raw extracts against many cancer cell lines. Little but important evidence can be retrieved from the clinical and nutritional scientific literature, where flavonoids are investigated as major pro-apoptotic and anti-metastatic compounds. However, the actual role of these compounds in cancer is still far to be fully elucidated. Many of these phytochemicals act in a pleiotropic and poorly specific manner, but, more importantly, they are able to tune the reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling to activate a survival or a pro-autophagic and pro-apoptosis mechanism, depending on the oxidative stress-responsive endowment of the targeted cell. This review will try to focus on this issue.