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Srivastava P, Saji J, Manickam N. Biodegradation of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) by Brucella intermedia IITR130 and its proposed metabolic pathway. Biodegradation 2024; 35:671-685. [PMID: 38459363 DOI: 10.1007/s10532-024-10070-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Accumulation of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) polyester in ecosystems across the globe is a major pollution of concern. Microbial degradation recently generated novel insights into the biodegradation of varieties of plastics. In this study, a PET degrading bacterium Brucella intermedia IITR130 was isolated from a contaminated lake ecosystem at Pallikaranai, Chennai, India. Incubation of the bacterium along with the PET sheet (0.1 mm thickness) for 60 days resulted in 26.06% degradation, indicating a half-life of 137.8 days. Considerable changes in the surface morphology of the PET sheet were found as holes, pits, and cracks on incubation with strain IITR130, as revealed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). After bacterial treatment of PET, the formation of new functional groups, most notably in the area of 3326 cm-1 suggestive of O-H stretch, leading to carboxylic acid and alcohol as products were suggested by fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis. Monomethyl terephthalate (MMT) and terephthalic acid (TPA) were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis as PET degradation metabolites. Tributyrin clearance assay confirmed the presence of a lipase/esterase enzyme in the strain IITR130. In this study, a degradation pathway for PET by an isolated and identified bacterium Brucella intermedia IITR130 was characterized in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pallavi Srivastava
- Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group, FEST Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226001, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201002, India
| | - Joel Saji
- Drug and Chemical Toxicology Group, FEST Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226001, India
| | - Natesan Manickam
- Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group, FEST Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226001, India.
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201002, India.
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2
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Di Lorenzo ML. Crystallization of Poly(ethylene terephthalate): A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1975. [PMID: 39065291 PMCID: PMC11280767 DOI: 10.3390/polym16141975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2024] [Revised: 07/05/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) is a thermoplastic polyester with excellent thermal and mechanical properties, widely used in a variety of industrial fields. It is a semicrystalline polymer, and most of the industrial success of PET derives from its easily tunable crystallization kinetics, which allow users to produce the polymer with a high crystal fraction for applications that demand high thermomechanical resistance and barrier properties, or a fully amorphous polymer when high transparency of the product is needed. The main properties of the polymer are presented and discussed in this contribution, together with the literature data on the crystal structure and morphology of PET. This is followed by an in-depth analysis of its crystallization kinetics, including both primary crystal nucleation and crystal growth, as well as secondary crystallization. The effect of molar mass, catalyst residues, chain composition, and thermo-mechanical treatments on the crystallization kinetics, structure, and morphology of PET are also reviewed in this contribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Laura Di Lorenzo
- National Research Council, Institute for Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials, CNR-IPCB, Via Campi Flegrei, 34, 80078 Pozzuoli, NA, Italy
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3
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Steimel KG, Hwang R, Dinh D, Donnell MT, More S, Fung E. Evaluation of chemicals leached from PET and recycled PET containers into beverages. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2024; 39:251-260. [PMID: 36521108 DOI: 10.1515/reveh-2022-0183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The use of recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET) containers, a recent shift in the beverage industry, poses new potential human health concerns including contamination from the original container; use of additives, detergents, and catalysts during recycling; and improper recycling practices. The purpose of this analysis was to evaluate available data regarding: (1) chemicals leached from PET and rPET in bottle form; (2) concentration of these chemicals; and (3) trends between rPET percent and concentration of chemicals leached. This analysis identified 211 scientific articles related to recycled plastic and leachables. Three articles met the inclusion criteria: (1) plastic was in bottle form; (2) plastic was made of PET or rPET; and (3) the study analyzed both PET and rPET using the same methods. This evaluation demonstrated that only nine compounds - benzene, styrene, acetaldehyde, 2-methyl-1,3-dioxolane, furan, bisphenol A (BPA), 2-buta-none, acetone, and limonene - have been studied. Notably, the leachable concentration of benzene, styrene, and BPA increased as the percent of recycled content increased from 0 to 100%. However, 2-methyl-1,3-dioxolane and furan implied a reverse trend, where the leachable concentration decreased as the percent of recycled content increased from 0 to 100%. The concentrations of 2-butanone, acetone, and limonene did not follow any suggested trend. Evidently, recycling PET can lead to changes in the leachables profile. This analysis further identified key areas of research, including testing a variety of liquid types, that need to be addressed to adequately conduct a human health risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ruth Hwang
- Stantec (ChemRisk), San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Dan Dinh
- Stantec (ChemRisk), Brooklyn, NY, USA
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Slezák E, Ronkay F, Réz D, Bocz K. Recyclability of elastomer toughened recycled poly(ethylene terephthalate): The effect of grinding-extrusion-injection moulding on the mechanical and morphological properties of the blend. Heliyon 2024; 10:e32096. [PMID: 38867993 PMCID: PMC11168396 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Reprocessing potential of recycled poly(ethylene-terephthalate) (RPET)/ethylene-butyl-acrylate-glycidyl methacrylate (EBA-GMA) blends was investigated. PET flakes from food packaging were compounded with 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 % EBA-GMA. Injection moulded specimens were produced, and some of the specimens were grinded, and reproduced to simulate real reprocessing. It was revealed by scanning electron microscopy that the distribution and particle size of the elastomer did not change notably after recycling. Noticeable degradation of the polymer matrix was observable after every processing step. Such deterioration of PET resulted in higher crystallinity and rigid amorphous fraction, as found by differential scanning calorimetry, which ultimately led to higher storage modulus, while the notched impact strength and elongation at break decreased. Nevertheless, the mechanical performance of the reprocessed RPET/EBA-GMA blends still significantly outperforms that of the neat PET recyclate. The degree of chain breakage was found to be the primary factor determining the recyclability of RPET/EBA-GMA blends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emese Slezák
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3., H-1111, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ferenc Ronkay
- Department of Innovative Vehicles and Materials, GAMF Faculty of Engineering and Computer Science, John von Neumann University, H-6000, Kecskemét, Hungary
| | - Dávid Réz
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3., H-1111, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Katalin Bocz
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3., H-1111, Budapest, Hungary
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5
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Shi C, Quinn EC, Diment WT, Chen EYX. Recyclable and (Bio)degradable Polyesters in a Circular Plastics Economy. Chem Rev 2024; 124:4393-4478. [PMID: 38518259 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
Polyesters carrying polar main-chain ester linkages exhibit distinct material properties for diverse applications and thus play an important role in today's plastics economy. It is anticipated that they will play an even greater role in tomorrow's circular plastics economy that focuses on sustainability, thanks to the abundant availability of their biosourced building blocks and the presence of the main-chain ester bonds that can be chemically or biologically cleaved on demand by multiple methods and thus bring about more desired end-of-life plastic waste management options. Because of this potential and promise, there have been intense research activities directed at addressing recycling, upcycling or biodegradation of existing legacy polyesters, designing their biorenewable alternatives, and redesigning future polyesters with intrinsic chemical recyclability and tailored performance that can rival today's commodity plastics that are either petroleum based and/or hard to recycle. This review captures these exciting recent developments and outlines future challenges and opportunities. Case studies on the legacy polyesters, poly(lactic acid), poly(3-hydroxyalkanoate)s, poly(ethylene terephthalate), poly(butylene succinate), and poly(butylene-adipate terephthalate), are presented, and emerging chemically recyclable polyesters are comprehensively reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changxia Shi
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Ethan C Quinn
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Wilfred T Diment
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Eugene Y-X Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
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Bian X, Xia G, Xin JH, Jiang S, Ma K. Applications of waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET) based nanostructured materials: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 350:141076. [PMID: 38169200 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.141076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
While polyethylene terephthalate (PET) has enjoyed widespread use, a large volume of plastic waste has also been produced as a result, which is detrimental to the environment. Traditional treatment of plastic waste, such as landfilling and incinerating waste, causes environmental pollution and poses risks to public health. Recycling PET waste into useful chemicals or upcycling the waste into high value-added materials can be remedies. This review first provides a brief introduction of the synthesis, structure, properties, and applications of virgin PET. Then the conversion process of waste PET into high value-added materials for different applications are introduced. The conversion mechanisms (including degradation, recycling and upcycling) are detailed. The advanced applications of these upgraded materials in energy storage devices (supercapacitors, lithium-ion batteries, and microbial fuel cells), and for water treatment (to remove dyes, heavy metals, and antibiotics), environmental remediation (for air filtration, CO2 adsorption, and oil removal) and catalysis (to produce H2, photoreduce CO2, and remove toxic chemicals) are discussed at length. In general, this review details the exploration of advanced technologies for the transformation of waste PET into nanostructured materials for various applications, and provides insights into the role of high value-added waste products in sustainability and economic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueyan Bian
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Gang Xia
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - John H Xin
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Shouxiang Jiang
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Kaikai Ma
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
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Viora L, Combeau M, Pucci MF, Perrin D, Liotier PJ, Bouvard JL, Combeaud C. A Comparative Study on Crystallisation for Virgin and Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET): Multiscale Effects on Physico-Mechanical Properties. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4613. [PMID: 38232036 PMCID: PMC10708313 DOI: 10.3390/polym15234613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) (PET) is one of the most used polymers for packaging applications. Modifications induced by service conditions and the means to make this matter circular have to be understood to really close the loop (from bottle to bottle for example). Physico-chemical properties, crystalline organisation, and mechanical behaviour of virgin PET (vPET) are compared with those of recycled PET (rPET). Using different combined experimental methods (Calorimetry, Small Angle X-ray Scattering [SAXS], Atomic Force Microscopy [AFM], Dynamic Mechanical Analysis [DMA], and uniaxial tensile test), it has been proven that even if there is no change in the crystallinity of PET, the crystallisation process shows some differences (size and number of spherulites). The potential impact of these differences on local mechanical characterisation is explored and tends to demonstrate the development of a homogeneous microstructure, leading to well-controlled and relevant local mechanical property characterisation. The main contribution of the present study is a better understanding of crystallisation of PET and recycled PET during forming processes such as thermoforming or Injection Stretch Blow Moulding (ISBM), during which elongation at the point of breaking can depend on the microstructure conditioned by the crystallisation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurianne Viora
- Mines Paris, Centre for Material Forming (CEMEF), PSL University, UMR CNRS 7635, 1 rue Claude Daunesse, CS 10207, 06904 Sophia Antipolis, France; (L.V.); (J.-L.B.); (C.C.)
| | - Marie Combeau
- PCH, IMT Mines Ales, 30100 Ales, France; (M.C.); (P.-J.L.)
| | | | - Didier Perrin
- PCH, IMT Mines Ales, 30100 Ales, France; (M.C.); (P.-J.L.)
| | | | - Jean-Luc Bouvard
- Mines Paris, Centre for Material Forming (CEMEF), PSL University, UMR CNRS 7635, 1 rue Claude Daunesse, CS 10207, 06904 Sophia Antipolis, France; (L.V.); (J.-L.B.); (C.C.)
| | - Christelle Combeaud
- Mines Paris, Centre for Material Forming (CEMEF), PSL University, UMR CNRS 7635, 1 rue Claude Daunesse, CS 10207, 06904 Sophia Antipolis, France; (L.V.); (J.-L.B.); (C.C.)
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8
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Zhou K, Liu Q, Feng J, Chang T, Liu J. Comprehensive environmental performance of bottle-to-bottle recycling of PET bottles based on deposit-refund system in China. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 172:90-100. [PMID: 37879269 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a widely used packaging material and has high value in recycling. However, under China's dominant informal recycling system, most PET bottles are downcycled into fibers. The deposit-refund system (DRS) is considered a feasible mechanism to facilitate the high-value recycling of PET bottles. To comparatively evaluate the environmental performance [reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) and pollutant emissions] under different scenarios using life cycle assessments, including the current system based on informal recycling, an improved system with a larger contribution from the source separation of municipal solid waste, and evolving systems with DRS application, five scenarios were set up. The DRS can reduce GHG emissions and the comprehensive environmental impact by 0.538 kg CO2 /kg PET bottles and 1.73 × 10-3 PE/kg PET bottles, respectively, compared to informal recycling. It can be concluded that the DRS-based recycling approach and the bottle-to-bottle recycling provide the substantial emission reduction potential of GHGs and pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keren Zhou
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 10084, China
| | - Qin Liu
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 10084, China
| | - Juan Feng
- Beijing INCOM Recycle Co., Ltd, Beijing 101312, China
| | - Tao Chang
- Beijing INCOM Recycle Co., Ltd, Beijing 101312, China
| | - Jianguo Liu
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 10084, China.
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9
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Enayati M, Mohammadi S, Bouldo MG. Sustainable PET Waste Recycling: Labels from PET Water Bottles Used as a Catalyst for the Chemical Recycling of the Same Bottles. ACS SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY & ENGINEERING 2023; 11:16618-16626. [PMID: 38028403 PMCID: PMC10664144 DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c04997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
We report using a waste material, poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) water bottle labels, for the chemical recycling of the same PET water bottles. The solid fillers used for the manufacturing of the packaging labels were recovered by thermolysis in an electrical furnace at 600, 800, and 1000 °C with 13.5, 12.0, and 10.4 wt % recovery. Characterization of the solid residue showed the presence of calcium carbonate, calcium oxide, and titanium dioxide, which are typical fillers used for packaging film manufacturing, such as water bottle labels. These solid residues were then used as a catalyst for PET depolymerization by glycolysis, in which the catalyst recovered from bottle labels and shredded PET reacted in the presence of excess ethylene glycol at 200 °C. The reaction mixtures were analyzed for PET conversion and the yield of the bis(2-hydroxyethyl)terephthalate (BHET) monomer as the final product of the glycolysis reaction to determine the efficiency of the catalyst. Our results show that the catalyst prepared at 800 °C (Cat-800) has the best performance and provides a 100% PET conversion with a 95.8% BHET yield with a 1.0 wt % loading in 1.5 h. The catalyst from the PET water bottle labels is nontoxic, readily available, cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and can be used as a model for the self-sufficient chemical recycling of PET via glycolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojtaba Enayati
- Center for Materials and
Manufacturing Sciences, Departments of Chemistry and Physics, Troy University, Troy, Alabama 36082, United States
| | - Somayeh Mohammadi
- Center for Materials and
Manufacturing Sciences, Departments of Chemistry and Physics, Troy University, Troy, Alabama 36082, United States
| | - Martin G. Bouldo
- Center for Materials and
Manufacturing Sciences, Departments of Chemistry and Physics, Troy University, Troy, Alabama 36082, United States
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10
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Kassab A, Al Nabhani D, Mohanty P, Pannier C, Ayoub GY. Advancing Plastic Recycling: Challenges and Opportunities in the Integration of 3D Printing and Distributed Recycling for a Circular Economy. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3881. [PMID: 37835930 PMCID: PMC10575100 DOI: 10.3390/polym15193881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The concept of the circular economy has emerged as a promising solution to address the mounting concerns surrounding plastic waste and the urgent need for sustainable resource management. While conventional centralized recycling remains a common practice for plastic waste, centralized facilities may prove inadequate in handling the ever-increasing volumes of plastic waste generated globally. Consequently, exploring alternative recycling methods, such as distributed recycling by additive manufacturing, becomes paramount. This innovative approach encompasses actively involving communities in recycling practices and promotes a circular economy. This comprehensive review paper aims to explore the critical aspects necessary to realize the potential of distributed recycling by additive manufacturing. In this paper, our focus lies on proposing schemes that leverage existing literature to harness the potential of distributed recycling by additive manufacturing as an effective approach to plastic waste management. We explore the intricacies of the recycling process, optimize 3D printing parameters, address potential challenges, and evaluate the mechanical properties of recycled materials. Our investigation draws heavily from the literature of the last five years, as we conduct a thorough critical assessment of DRAM implementation and its influence on the properties of 3D printing structures. Through comprehensive analysis, we reveal the potential of recycled materials in delivering functional components, with insights into their performance, strengths, and weaknesses. This review serves as a comprehensive guide for those interested in embracing distributed recycling by additive manufacturing as a transformative approach to plastic recycling. By fostering community engagement, optimizing 3D printing processes, and incorporating suitable additives, it is possible to collectively contribute to a more sustainable future while combatting the plastic waste crisis. As progress is made, it becomes essential to further delve into the complexities of material behavior, recycling techniques, and the long-term durability of recycled 3D printed components. By addressing these challenges head-on, it is feasible to refine and advance distributed recycling by additive manufacturing as a viable pathway to minimize plastic waste, fostering a circular economy and cultivating a cleaner planet for generations to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Kassab
- Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA;
| | - Dawood Al Nabhani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA; (D.A.N.); (C.P.)
| | - Pravansu Mohanty
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA; (D.A.N.); (C.P.)
| | - Christopher Pannier
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA; (D.A.N.); (C.P.)
| | - Georges Y. Ayoub
- Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA;
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Rashwan O, Koroneos Z, Townsend TG, Caputo MP, Bylone RJ, Wodrig B, Cantor K. Extrusion and characterization of recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET) filaments compounded with chain extender and impact modifiers for material-extrusion additive manufacturing. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16041. [PMID: 37749175 PMCID: PMC10519981 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41744-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The continuous growth of annual production and consumption of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is coined with increasing waste that leaks into the environment, landfills and oceans as microplastics and nano plastics fragments. Upcycling the recycled PET to make a feedstock for the fast-growing material-extrusion additive manufacturing (MEX-AM) technology can contribute to the solution and supports the concept of sustainable materials. In this work, extrudable filaments comprising recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET) with low-cost additives, such as pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA) as a chain extender, styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene terpolymer functionalized with maleic anhydride (SEBS-g-MA), a thermal modifier and toughening agent, ethylene-ethyl acrylate-glycidyl methacrylate terpolymer (E-EA-GMA), a functional reactive elastomeric impact modifier and ethylene-ethyl-acrylate (EEA), a non-reactive elastomeric impact modifier, have been fabricated using the twin-screw extruder. The optimum extrusion process parameters for producing uniform filaments of different rPET compounded formulations have been identified, this includes the extrusion die temperature of 280 °C and the screw speed of 150 ± 3 rpm. The compounded filaments are then printed into standard ASTM test specimens for thermal characterization and mechanical characterization, including glass transition and melting temperatures, crystallinity and crystallization temperature, tensile strength, tensile modulus, ductility, flexural strength, and Izod impact energy. Furthermore, the melt flow index for the filaments was measured. More significantly, the experimental data showed that compounding rPET with such additives in the reactive twin-screw extrusion process results in uniform filaments that display advantageous thermal and mechanical properties and can be used as a feedstock in the MEX-AM technology. This study suggests that compounding the recycled PET pellets with low-cost additives while extruding them into filaments for MEX-AM offers excellent potential to make high-value-added customized products from a sustainable polymer feedstock, such as prototyping, tooling, testing components or end-use internal components for small machines and cars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ola Rashwan
- Pennsylvania State University - Harrisburg, 777 W Harrisburg Pike, Middletown, PA, 17057, USA.
| | - Zachary Koroneos
- Pennsylvania State University - Harrisburg, 777 W Harrisburg Pike, Middletown, PA, 17057, USA
| | - Trent G Townsend
- Pennsylvania State University - Harrisburg, 777 W Harrisburg Pike, Middletown, PA, 17057, USA
| | - Matthew P Caputo
- Pennsylvania State University -Shenango, 147 Shenango Avenue, Sharon, PA, 16146, USA
| | - Robert J Bylone
- Recycling Markets Center, Pennsylvania State University - Harrisburg, 777 W Harrisburg Pike, Middletown, PA, 17057, USA
| | - Brennan Wodrig
- Plastics Innovation and Resource Center, Pennsylvania College of Technology, One College Avenue, Williamsport, PA, 17701, USA
| | - Kirk Cantor
- Plastics Innovation and Resource Center, Pennsylvania College of Technology, One College Avenue, Williamsport, PA, 17701, USA
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12
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Majka TM, Ostrowski KA, Piechaczek M. Research on the Development of a Way to Modify Asphalt Mixtures with PET Recyclates. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:6258. [PMID: 37763539 PMCID: PMC10532884 DOI: 10.3390/ma16186258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Due to the growing need to recycle plastics, new possibilities for their reuse are intensively sought. In the Asian market, waste polymers are increasingly used to modify road bitumen. This solution is beneficial in many aspects, especially in economic and ecological terms. In this work, recycled poly(ethylene terephthalate) (RPET), obtained from storage points located in Lesser Poland, was subjected to material recycling, and its properties were examined using three analyses: differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TG), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The most important point of this research was the selection of conditions for obtaining modified asphalt mixtures through the addition of RPET. Subsequently, the effect of the polymer on the properties of road bitumens was assessed on the basis of penetration tests, softening point, elastic recovery, and structure. In the last stage of our research work, asphalt mixtures with the addition of modified waste PET (PMA) containing mineral filler in the form of basalt dust were obtained. The properties of the obtained mineral-polymer-asphalt mixtures were compared in terms of frost resistance, structure, and abrasion resistance with the properties of mineral-asphalt mixtures that were taken from damaged road surfaces in four points in the city of Tarnów (Lesser Poland) in the winter of 2022. It has been shown that the modification of road bitumen with the use of recyclate and mineral filler has a significant impact on its performance properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz M. Majka
- Department of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Adam Ostrowski
- Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland;
| | - Marcin Piechaczek
- Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland;
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13
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Cecon VS, Curtzwiler GW, Vorst KL. Evaluation of mixed #3-7 plastic waste from material recovery facilities (MRFs) in the United States. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 171:313-323. [PMID: 37699294 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
Plastic recycling rates are still low in the United States (U.S.), with less than 10% of municipal solid waste (MSW) plastic being recycled. Most unrecycled plastics are identified by Resin Identification Codes (RIC) from #3-7, which are commonly destined for landfill or waste-to-energy facilities (WTE). Therefore, the composition and quality of outbound bales containing #3-7 plastics were assessed to understand the potential to increase recycling rates. Three bales were sourced from three different Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) located in the United States. Each bale was manually sorted and characterized for quality and performance via multiple plastic characterization techniques. Considerable differences in bale composition were observed between MRFs, which correlated with the technology used by each MRF in the sorting process. The differences were substantial in the residual levels of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE), which are highly desired for mechanical recycling processes and not expected in #3-7 plastics bales. Traditional recycling processes including washing, extrusion, and injection molding of the sorted material were employed prior to the physical, thermal, and molecular characterization. Despite differences in bale composition by plastic type, some polymer properties were similar across MRFs. This research suggests that landfill-diverted mixed plastic waste can be utilized in the mechanical recycling of currently unrecycled materials, as processes can be designed to work with consistent polymer properties. It also highlights the need to upgrade the sorting systems to prevent waste feedstocks, which can be recycled with current technologies, from contaminating other plastic streams or reach landfills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor S Cecon
- Polymer and Food Protection Consortium, Iowa State University, 536 Farmhouse Lane, Ames IA, 50011, USA; Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, 536 Farmhouse Lane, Ames IA, 50011, USA
| | - Greg W Curtzwiler
- Polymer and Food Protection Consortium, Iowa State University, 536 Farmhouse Lane, Ames IA, 50011, USA; Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, 536 Farmhouse Lane, Ames IA, 50011, USA
| | - Keith L Vorst
- Polymer and Food Protection Consortium, Iowa State University, 536 Farmhouse Lane, Ames IA, 50011, USA; Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, 536 Farmhouse Lane, Ames IA, 50011, USA.
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14
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Williams GB, Ma H, Khusnutdinova AN, Yakunin AF, Golyshin PN. Harnessing extremophilic carboxylesterases for applications in polyester depolymerisation and plastic waste recycling. Essays Biochem 2023; 67:715-729. [PMID: 37334661 PMCID: PMC10423841 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20220255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
The steady growth in industrial production of synthetic plastics and their limited recycling have resulted in severe environmental pollution and contribute to global warming and oil depletion. Currently, there is an urgent need to develop efficient plastic recycling technologies to prevent further environmental pollution and recover chemical feedstocks for polymer re-synthesis and upcycling in a circular economy. Enzymatic depolymerization of synthetic polyesters by microbial carboxylesterases provides an attractive addition to existing mechanical and chemical recycling technologies due to enzyme specificity, low energy consumption, and mild reaction conditions. Carboxylesterases constitute a diverse group of serine-dependent hydrolases catalysing the cleavage and formation of ester bonds. However, the stability and hydrolytic activity of identified natural esterases towards synthetic polyesters are usually insufficient for applications in industrial polyester recycling. This necessitates further efforts on the discovery of robust enzymes, as well as protein engineering of natural enzymes for enhanced activity and stability. In this essay, we discuss the current knowledge of microbial carboxylesterases that degrade polyesters (polyesterases) with focus on polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which is one of the five major synthetic polymers. Then, we briefly review the recent progress in the discovery and protein engineering of microbial polyesterases, as well as developing enzyme cocktails and secreted protein expression for applications in the depolymerisation of polyester blends and mixed plastics. Future research aimed at the discovery of novel polyesterases from extreme environments and protein engineering for improved performance will aid developing efficient polyester recycling technologies for the circular plastics economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwion B Williams
- Centre for Environmental Biotechnology, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor LL57 2UW, U.K
| | - Hairong Ma
- Centre for Environmental Biotechnology, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor LL57 2UW, U.K
| | - Anna N Khusnutdinova
- Centre for Environmental Biotechnology, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor LL57 2UW, U.K
| | - Alexander F Yakunin
- Centre for Environmental Biotechnology, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor LL57 2UW, U.K
| | - Peter N Golyshin
- Centre for Environmental Biotechnology, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Deiniol Road, Bangor LL57 2UW, U.K
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15
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Hao TY, Lin QB, Wu XF, Wu SL, Zhong HN, Dong B, Chen ZF, Ye ZK, Wang ZW, Xu X. Authentication of recycled and virgin polyethylene terephthalate based on UPLC-Q-TOF-MS using non-volatile organic compounds and chemometrics. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2023; 40:1114-1130. [PMID: 37410927 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2023.2227732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
Plastic packaging waste, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) has increased significantly in recent decades, arousing a considerable and serious public concern regarding the environment, economy, and policy. Plastic recycling is a useful tool to mitigate this issue. Here, a feasible study was performed to investigate the potential of a novel method for identifying virgin and recycled PET. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) was combined with various chemometrics, as a simple and reliable method that achieved a high discrimination rate for 105 batches of virgin PET (v-PET) and recycled PET (r-PET) based on 202 non-volatile organic compounds (NVOCs). Making use of orthogonal partial least-squares discrimination analysis (OPLS-DA) together with non-parametric tests, 26 marker compounds (i.e. 12 intentionally added substances (IAS) and 14 non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) as well as 31 marker compounds (i.e. 11 IAS and 20 NIAS) obtained from positive and combination of positive and negative ionization modes of UPLC-Q-TOF-MS, respectively, were successfully identified. Moreover, 100% accuracy was obtained using a decision tree (DT). Cross-discrimination based on misclassified samples using various chemometrics allowed the prediction accuracy to be improved and to identify a large sample set, thus greatly enhancing the application scope of this method. The possible origins of these detected compounds can be the plastic itself, as well as contamination from food, medicine, pesticides, industry-related substances, and degradation and polymerization products. As many of these compounds are toxic, especially those pesticide related, this indicates an urgent requirement for closed loop recycling. Overall, this analytical method provides a quick, accurate, and robust way to distinguish virgin from recycled PET and thus addresses the issue of potential virgin PET adulteration thereby detecting fraud in the area of PET recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Ying Hao
- Key Laboratory of Product Packaging and Logistics, Packaging Engineering Institute, College of Packaging Engineering, Jinan University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Qin-Bao Lin
- Key Laboratory of Product Packaging and Logistics, Packaging Engineering Institute, College of Packaging Engineering, Jinan University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Xue-Feng Wu
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs District Technology Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Si-Liang Wu
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs District Technology Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Huai-Ning Zhong
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs District Technology Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Ben Dong
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs District Technology Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhi-Feng Chen
- Key Laboratory of Product Packaging and Logistics, Packaging Engineering Institute, College of Packaging Engineering, Jinan University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Zhi-Kang Ye
- Key Laboratory of Product Packaging and Logistics, Packaging Engineering Institute, College of Packaging Engineering, Jinan University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Zhi-Wei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Product Packaging and Logistics, Packaging Engineering Institute, College of Packaging Engineering, Jinan University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Xiaowen Xu
- Key Laboratory of Product Packaging and Logistics, Packaging Engineering Institute, College of Packaging Engineering, Jinan University, Zhuhai, China
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16
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Papac Zjačić J, Tonković S, Pulitika A, Katančić Z, Kovačić M, Kušić H, Hrnjak Murgić Z, Lončarić Božić A. Effect of Aging on Physicochemical Properties and Size Distribution of PET Microplastic: Influence on Adsorption of Diclofenac and Toxicity Assessment. TOXICS 2023; 11:615. [PMID: 37505580 PMCID: PMC10383551 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11070615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are detected in the water, sediments, as well as biota, mainly as a consequence of the degradation of plastic products/waste under environmental conditions. Due to their potentially harmful effects on ecosystems and organisms, MPs are regarded as emerging pollutants. The highly problematic aspect of MPs is their interaction with organic and inorganic pollutants; MPs can act as vectors for their further transport in the environment. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of ageing on the changes in physicochemical properties and size distribution of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), as well as to investigate the adsorption capacity of pristine and aged PET MPs, using pharmaceutical diclofenac (DCF) as a model organic pollutant. An ecotoxicity assessment of such samples was performed. Characterization of the PET samples (bottles and films) was carried out to detect the thermooxidative aging effects. The influence of the temperature and MP dosage on the extent of adsorption of DCF was elucidated by employing an empirical modeling approach using the response surface methodology (RSM). Aquatic toxicity was investigated by examining the green microalgae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. It was found that the thermooxidative ageing process resulted in mild surface changes in PET MPs, which were reflected in changes in hydrophobicity, the amount of amorphous phase, and the particle size distribution. The fractions of the particle size distribution in the range 100-500 μm for aged PET are higher due to the increase in amorphous phase. The proposed mechanisms of interactions between DCF and PET MPs are hydrophobic and π-π interactions as well as hydrogen bonding. RSM revealed that the adsorption favors low temperatures and low dosages of MP. The combination of MPs and DCF exhibited higher toxicity than the individual components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josipa Papac Zjačić
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Marulića 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Stefani Tonković
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Marulića 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Anamarija Pulitika
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Marulića 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Zvonimir Katančić
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Marulića 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Marin Kovačić
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Marulića 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Hrvoje Kušić
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Marulića 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
- Department for Packaging, Recycling and Environmental Protection, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia
| | - Zlata Hrnjak Murgić
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Marulića 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ana Lončarić Božić
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Marulića 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
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17
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Klose L, Meyer-Heydecke N, Wongwattanarat S, Chow J, Pérez García P, Carré C, Streit W, Antranikian G, Romero AM, Liese A. Towards Sustainable Recycling of Epoxy-Based Polymers: Approaches and Challenges of Epoxy Biodegradation. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:2653. [PMID: 37376299 DOI: 10.3390/polym15122653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Epoxy resins are highly valued for their remarkable mechanical and chemical properties and are extensively used in various applications such as coatings, adhesives, and fiber-reinforced composites in lightweight construction. Composites are especially important for the development and implementation of sustainable technologies such as wind power, energy-efficient aircrafts, and electric cars. Despite their advantages, their non-biodegradability raises challenges for the recycling of polymer and composites in particular. Conventional methods employed for epoxy recycling are characterized by their high energy consumption and the utilization of toxic chemicals, rendering them rather unsustainable. Recent progress has been made in the field of plastic biodegradation, which is considered more sustainable than energy-intensive mechanical or thermal recycling methods. However, the current successful approaches in plastic biodegradation are predominantly focused on polyester-based polymers, leaving more recalcitrant plastics underrepresented in this area of research. Epoxy polymers, characterized by their strong cross-linking and predominantly ether-based backbone, exhibit a highly rigid and durable structure, placing them within this category. Therefore, the objective of this review paper is to examine the various approaches that have been employed for the biodegradation of epoxy so far. Additionally, the paper sheds light on the analytical techniques utilized in the development of these recycling methods. Moreover, the review addresses the challenges and opportunities entailed in epoxy recycling through bio-based approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Klose
- Institute of Technical Biocatalysis, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Neele Meyer-Heydecke
- Institute of Technical Biocatalysis, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sasipa Wongwattanarat
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Hamburg, 22609 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jennifer Chow
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Hamburg, 22609 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Pablo Pérez García
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Hamburg, 22609 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Camille Carré
- Airbus Defence and Space GmbH, Central Research and Technology, 81663 Munich, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Streit
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Hamburg, 22609 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Garabed Antranikian
- Institute of Technical Biocatalysis, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ana Malvis Romero
- Institute of Technical Biocatalysis, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Liese
- Institute of Technical Biocatalysis, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
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18
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Roungpaisan N, Srisawat N, Rungruangkitkrai N, Chartvivatpornchai N, Boonyarit J, Kittikorn T, Chollakup R. Effect of Recycling PET Fabric and Bottle Grade on r-PET Fiber Structure. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15102330. [PMID: 37242906 DOI: 10.3390/polym15102330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
PET knitted fabric was melted and cooled by hot pressing at 250 °C to obtain a compacted sheet. Only white PET fabric (WF_PET) was used to study the recycling process by compression and grinding to powder and then melt spinning at different take-up speeds compared to PET bottle grade (BO_PET). PET knitted fabric had good fiber formability and was better suited for melt spinning of recycled PET (r-PET) fibers than the bottle grade. Thermal and mechanical properties of r-PET fibers improved in terms of crystallinity and tensile strength with increasing take-up speed (500 to 1500 m/min). Fading and color changes from the original fabric were relatively small compared with PET bottle grade. Results indicated that fiber structure and properties can be used as a guideline for improving and developing r-PET fibers from textile waste.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanjaporn Roungpaisan
- Faculty of Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathum Thani 12110, Thailand
| | - Natee Srisawat
- Faculty of Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathum Thani 12110, Thailand
| | - Nattadon Rungruangkitkrai
- Department of Textile Science, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | | | - Jirachaya Boonyarit
- Kasetsart Agricultural and Agro-Industrial Product Improvement Institute (KAPI), Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Thorsak Kittikorn
- Division of Physical Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla 90110, Thailand
| | - Rungsima Chollakup
- Kasetsart Agricultural and Agro-Industrial Product Improvement Institute (KAPI), Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
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19
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Cusano I, Campagnolo L, Aurilia M, Costanzo S, Grizzuti N. Rheology of Recycled PET. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:ma16093358. [PMID: 37176239 PMCID: PMC10179504 DOI: 10.3390/ma16093358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a thermoplastic material that is widely used in many application fields, such as packaging, construction and household products. Due to the relevant contribution of PET to global yearly solid waste, the recycling of such material has become an important issue. Disposed PET does not maintain the mechanical properties of virgin material, as exposure to water and other substances can cause multiple chain scissions, with subsequent degradation of the viscoelastic properties. For this reason, chain extension is needed to improve the final properties of the recycled product. Chain extension is generally performed through reactive extrusion. As the latter involves structural modification and flow of PET molecules, rheology is a relevant asset for understanding the process and tailoring the mechanical properties of the final products. This paper briefly reviews relevant rheological studies associated with the recycling of polyethylene terephthalate through the reactive extrusion process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Cusano
- Department of Chemical, Materials and Production Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, P.le Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
| | | | | | - Salvatore Costanzo
- Department of Chemical, Materials and Production Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, P.le Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
| | - Nino Grizzuti
- Department of Chemical, Materials and Production Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, P.le Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
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20
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Mastropietro TF. Metal-organic frameworks and plastic: an emerging synergic partnership. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF ADVANCED MATERIALS 2023; 24:2189890. [PMID: 37007671 PMCID: PMC10054298 DOI: 10.1080/14686996.2023.2189890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Mismanagement of plastic waste results in its ubiquitous presence in the environment. Despite being durable and persistent materials, plastics are reduced by weathering phenomena into debris with a particle size down to nanometers. The fate and ecotoxicological effects of these solid micropollutants are not fully understood yet, but they are raising increasing concerns for the environment and people's health. Even if different current technologies have the potential to remove plastic particles, the efficiency of these processes is modest, especially for nanoparticles. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are crystalline nano-porous materials with unique properties, have unique properties, such as strong coordination bonds, large and robustus porous structures, high accessible surface areas and adsorption capacity, which make them suitable adsorbent materials for micropollutants. This review examines the preliminary results reported in literature indicating that MOFs are promising adsorbents for the removal of plastic particles from water, especially when MOFs are integrated in porous composite materials or membranes, where they are able to assure high removal efficiency, superior water flux and antifouling properties, even in the presence of other dissolved co-pollutants. Moreover, a recent trend for the alternative preparation of MOFs starting from plastic waste, especially polyethylene terephthalate, as a sustainable source of organic linkers is also reviewed, as it represents a promising route for mitigating the impact of the costs deriving from the widescale MOFs production and application. This connubial between MOFs and plastic has the potential to contribute at implementing a more effective waste management and the circular economy principles in the polymer life cycle.
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21
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Tournier V, Duquesne S, Guillamot F, Cramail H, Taton D, Marty A, André I. Enzymes' Power for Plastics Degradation. Chem Rev 2023; 123:5612-5701. [PMID: 36916764 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Plastics are everywhere in our modern way of living, and their production keeps increasing every year, causing major environmental concerns. Nowadays, the end-of-life management involves accumulation in landfills, incineration, and recycling to a lower extent. This ecological threat to the environment is inspiring alternative bio-based solutions for plastic waste treatment and recycling toward a circular economy. Over the past decade, considerable efforts have been made to degrade commodity plastics using biocatalytic approaches. Here, we provide a comprehensive review on the recent advances in enzyme-based biocatalysis and in the design of related biocatalytic processes to recycle or upcycle commodity plastics, including polyesters, polyamides, polyurethanes, and polyolefins. We also discuss scope and limitations, challenges, and opportunities of this field of research. An important message from this review is that polymer-assimilating enzymes are very likely part of the solution to reaching a circular plastic economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Tournier
- Carbios, Parc Cataroux-Bâtiment B80, 8 rue de la Grolière, 63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Sophie Duquesne
- Toulouse Biotechnology Institute, TBI, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, Toulouse, France, 135, avenue de Rangueil, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 04, France
| | - Frédérique Guillamot
- Carbios, Parc Cataroux-Bâtiment B80, 8 rue de la Grolière, 63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Henri Cramail
- Université Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, LCPO, 16 Avenue Pey-Berland, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - Daniel Taton
- Université Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, LCPO, 16 Avenue Pey-Berland, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - Alain Marty
- Carbios, Parc Cataroux-Bâtiment B80, 8 rue de la Grolière, 63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Isabelle André
- Toulouse Biotechnology Institute, TBI, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, Toulouse, France, 135, avenue de Rangueil, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 04, France
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22
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Dong B, Wu X, Wu S, Li H, Su QZ, Li D, Lin Q, Chen S, Zheng J, Zhu L, Zhong HN. Occurrence of volatile contaminants in recycled poly(ethylene terephthalate) by HS-SPME-GC×GC-QTOF-MS combined with chemometrics for authenticity assessment of geographical recycling regions. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 445:130407. [PMID: 36444813 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A comparison was performed on various methods detecting the volatile contaminants (VCs) in recycled poly(ethylene terephthalate) (rPET) flakes, the results demonstrated that head-space solid phase micro-extraction combined with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatograph-tandem quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC×GC-QTOF-MS) was a sensitive, effective, accurate method, and successfully applied to analyze 57 rPET flakes collected from different recycling plants in China. A total of 212 VCs were tentatively identified, and the possible source were associated with plastic, food, and cosmetics. 45 VCs are classified as high-priority compounds with toxicity level IV or V and may pose a risk to human health. Combined chemometrics for further analysis revealed that significant differences among these three geographical recycling regions. 6, 7, and 6 volatile markers were chosen based on VIP values and S-plot among plant1 plant 2 and plant 3, respectively. The markers differed significantly between recycled rPET samples in three geographical recycling regions based on chemometrics analysis. The initial classification rate and cross-validation accuracy were 100% on the identified VCs. These significant differences demonstrate that a systematic study is needed to obtain a comprehensive data on the contamination of rPET for food contact applications in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Dong
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Xuefeng Wu
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Siliang Wu
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Hanke Li
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Qi-Zhi Su
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Dan Li
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Qinbao Lin
- Key Laboratory of Product Packaging and Logistics, Packaging Engineering Institute, Jinan University, Zhuhai 519070, China; Working Group on Sustainable Food Contact Materials, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Sheng Chen
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China; Working Group on Sustainable Food Contact Materials, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Jianguo Zheng
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Lei Zhu
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100022, China.
| | - Huai-Ning Zhong
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China; Working Group on Sustainable Food Contact Materials, Guangzhou 510070, China; State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China.
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23
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Kulkarni A, Quintens G, Pitet LM. Trends in Polyester Upcycling for Diversifying a Problematic Waste Stream. Macromolecules 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c02054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Amruta Kulkarni
- Advanced Functional Polymers (AFP) Laboratory, Institute for Materials Research (imo-imomec), Hasselt University, Martelarenlaan 42, 3500 Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Greg Quintens
- Advanced Functional Polymers (AFP) Laboratory, Institute for Materials Research (imo-imomec), Hasselt University, Martelarenlaan 42, 3500 Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Louis M. Pitet
- Advanced Functional Polymers (AFP) Laboratory, Institute for Materials Research (imo-imomec), Hasselt University, Martelarenlaan 42, 3500 Hasselt, Belgium
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24
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Imdad S, Dohare RK. Preparation of ultrafiltration membrane from discarded polyethylene terephthalate bottles. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:42728-42737. [PMID: 36129647 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23068-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the polymeric membranes were prepared using discarded polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles. The fabrication of the membrane process was carried out using a dope solution composed of polyethylene terephthalate (polymer), O-cresol (as a solvent), and polyethylene glycol 400 (as an additive). The solubility parameters were studied to dissolve the polymer into the solvent at a specific temperature. The melt flow index and thermal analysis were evaluated for the discarded bottles and prepared membranes to ensure the quality and thermal stability of the PET. The porosity of the membranes was determined using scanning electron microscopy. The temperature required to prepare the dope solution was 80 °C with a stirring speed of 350 rpm. Non-solvent-induced phase separation method was used to fabricate the membranes. The coagulation bath was composed of a water-ethanol mixture. The porosity of the prepared membranes ranges between 30 and 50%. The contact angle was determined for the membrane in the range of 40° to 80°. The flux of the membranes was evaluated using membrane testing cell at a specified pressure which ranges from 80 to 150 Lm-2 h-1. The prepared membranes could be used in various industries like dairy, pharmaceutical, juice, and beverages to separate temperature-sensitive substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sameer Imdad
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, 302017, India
| | - Rajeev Kumar Dohare
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, 302017, India.
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25
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Sustainable synthesis of metal-organic frameworks and their derived materials from organic and inorganic wastes. Coord Chem Rev 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2022.214986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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26
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Aguado A, Becerra L, Martínez L. Glycolysis optimisation of different complex PET waste with recovery and reuse of ethylene glycol. CHEMICAL PAPERS 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s11696-023-02704-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
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27
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Epure EL, Cojocaru FD, Aradoaei M, Ciobanu RC, Dodi G. Exploring the Surface Potential of Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate Composite Supports on the Collagen Contamination Level. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15030776. [PMID: 36772077 PMCID: PMC9921895 DOI: 10.3390/polym15030776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
With a significant number of features (namely being multipurpose, inexpensive and durable), thermoplastic polymers, most often named plastics, are part of our daily routine, with an increasing production over the last decade. Among them, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene (PP) are distinguished as the five most commonly used plastics in various fields, mainly in the packaging industry. Even if it is difficult to imagine the world without plastics, the boosted plastic assembly comes with huge plastic waste, creating a number of challenges, as the most important threat for our environment, but also opportunities for recycling. Currently, a special attention is dedicated on how to improve the current recycling methods or to find new ones, since the quality of recycled plastics and potential chemical or biological contaminations are two problematic aspects. Understanding the properties of each thermoplastic polymer and the interaction with possible contaminants may be the key for an efficient recycling process. The aim of this paper was to evaluate the surface behaviour of different composite supports based on recycled PET before and after interaction with collagen (used as a biological contaminant). The surface contamination bias of PET supports was studied through different techniques: scanning electron microscopy (SEM), water uptake through swelling studies, contact angle measurements and attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena-Luiza Epure
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University, Mangeron Bd., 700454 Iasi, Romania
| | - Florina Daniela Cojocaru
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Iasi, 9-13 M. Kogalniceanu Street, 700454 Iasi, Romania
- Faculty of Medical Bioengineering, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Iasi, 9-13 M. Kogalniceanu Street, 700454 Iasi, Romania
| | - Mihaela Aradoaei
- Electrical Engineering Faculty, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi, 67 Prof. Dimitrie Mangeron Bd., 700050 Iasi, Romania
- ALL GREEN SRL, 8 G. Cosbuc Street, 700470 Iasi, Romania
- Correspondence: (M.A.); (G.D.)
| | - Romeo Cristian Ciobanu
- Electrical Engineering Faculty, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi, 67 Prof. Dimitrie Mangeron Bd., 700050 Iasi, Romania
- ALL GREEN SRL, 8 G. Cosbuc Street, 700470 Iasi, Romania
| | - Gianina Dodi
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Iasi, 9-13 M. Kogalniceanu Street, 700454 Iasi, Romania
- Faculty of Medical Bioengineering, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Iasi, 9-13 M. Kogalniceanu Street, 700454 Iasi, Romania
- Correspondence: (M.A.); (G.D.)
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28
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Schaerer LG, Wu R, Putman LI, Pearce JM, Lu T, Shonnard DR, Ong RG, Techtmann SM. Killing two birds with one stone: chemical and biological upcycling of polyethylene terephthalate plastics into food. Trends Biotechnol 2023; 41:184-196. [PMID: 36058768 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2022.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Most polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic waste is landfilled or pollutes the environment. Additionally, global food production must increase to support the growing population. This article explores the feasibility of using microorganisms in an industrial system that upcycles PET into edible microbial protein powder to solve both problems simultaneously. Many microorganisms can utilize plastics as feedstock, and the resultant microbial biomass contains fats, nutrients, and proteins similar to those found in human diets. While microbial degradation of PET is promising, biological PET depolymerization is too slow to resolve the global plastic crisis and projected food shortages. Evidence reviewed here suggests that by coupling chemical depolymerization and biological degradation of PET, and using cooperative microbial communities, microbes can efficiently convert PET waste into food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura G Schaerer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA
| | - Ruochen Wu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA
| | - Lindsay I Putman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA
| | - Joshua M Pearce
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ting Lu
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - David R Shonnard
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA
| | - Rebecca G Ong
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA
| | - Stephen M Techtmann
- Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA.
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29
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Hatt J, Englund K, Li H. Characterizing the changes to the material properties of a bottle‐grade poly(ethylene terephthalate) subject to repeated melt extrusion. J Appl Polym Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/app.53676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Hatt
- Civil Engineering Department Washington State University Pullman Washington USA
| | - Karl Englund
- Composite Materials and Engineering Center, Civil Engineering Department Washington State University Pullman Washington USA
| | - Hui Li
- Composite Materials and Engineering Center Washington State University Pullman Washington USA
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30
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Mrigwani A, Thakur B, Guptasarma P. Counter-intuitive enhancement of degradation of polyethylene terephthalate through engineering of lowered enzyme binding to solid plastic. Proteins 2023; 91:807-821. [PMID: 36629323 DOI: 10.1002/prot.26468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Degradation of solid polyethylene terephthalate (PET) by leaf branch compost cutinase (LCC) produces various PET-derived degradation intermediates (DIs), in addition to terephthalic acid (TPA), which is the recyclable terminal product of all PET degradation. Although DIs can also be converted into TPA, in solution, by LCC, the TPA that is obtained through enzymatic degradation of PET, in practice, is always contaminated by DIs. Here, we demonstrate that the primary reason for non-degradation of DIs into TPA in solution is the efficient binding of LCC onto the surface of solid PET. Although such binding enhances the degradation of solid PET, it depletes the surrounding solution of enzyme that could otherwise have converted DIs into TPA. To retain a subpopulation of enzyme in solution that would mainly degrade DIs, we introduced mutations to reduce the hydrophobicity of areas surrounding LCC's active site, with the express intention of reducing LCC's binding to solid PET. Despite the consequent reduction in invasion and degradation of solid PET, overall levels of production of TPA were ~3.6-fold higher, due to the partitioning of enzyme between solid PET and the surrounding solution, and the consequent heightened production of TPA from DIs. Further, synergy between such mutated LCC (F125L/F243I LCC) and wild-type LCC resulted in even higher yields, and TPA of nearly ~100% purity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpita Mrigwani
- Centre for Protein Science, Design and Engineering (CPSDE) and Hyperthermophile Enzyme Hydrolase Research Centre (HEHRC), Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Mohali, Knowledge City, Punjab, India
| | - Bhishem Thakur
- Centre for Protein Science, Design and Engineering (CPSDE) and Hyperthermophile Enzyme Hydrolase Research Centre (HEHRC), Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Mohali, Knowledge City, Punjab, India
| | - Purnananda Guptasarma
- Centre for Protein Science, Design and Engineering (CPSDE) and Hyperthermophile Enzyme Hydrolase Research Centre (HEHRC), Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Mohali, Knowledge City, Punjab, India
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31
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Upcycling of PET from recycled food packaging trays via vitrimers chemistry. POLYMER 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2022.125618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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32
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Study of polyester degradation by sub/supercritical ethanol and enhancement of carbon dioxide. J Supercrit Fluids 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2023.105837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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33
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Optimization of catalyst content for recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polycarbonate (PC) blending. Polym Bull (Berl) 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-022-04646-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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34
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Chu J, Zhou Y, Cai Y, Wang X, Li C, Liu Q. Flow and stock accumulation of plastics in China: Patterns and drivers. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 852:158513. [PMID: 36075419 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Plastic pollution has always been a hot issue of global concern. Previous studies have mainly focused on the flow of plastics. However, information on the patterns and characteristics of flow, stock, and waste in the plastic life cycle and their driving factors is limited in China, and effective waste reduction and sustainable strategies are missing. Therefore, this research established a flow model of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET); further analyzed the driving factors; and proposed strategies for waste reduction and sustainable development. We found that the total consumption, stock, and waste of PET, PE, and PP in 2010-2017 reached 552.96, 292.70, and 257.18 Tg, respectively. Building and construction (B&C), packaging, and textiles were the sectors with the largest stock of PE, PP, and PET. From 2010 to 2013, the stock of PE increased by 440 %, which was mainly driven by the increase in material utilization intensity (MUI). Similarly, the growth of MUI was the main driving factor driving PP (351 %) and PET (367 %) stocks. Notably, from 2014 to 2017, economic growth was the main factor driving the plastic stock. These results will provide a scientific basis for promoting the sustainable utilization of PE, PP, and PET and be of great significance to achieve the strategic goal of a no-waste city.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianwen Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Ya Zhou
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Environment and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China
| | - Yanpeng Cai
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Water Quality Improvement and Ecological Restoration for Watersheds, School of Ecology, Environment and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China.
| | - Xuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Chunhui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Qiang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
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35
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Rux K, Kane S, Espinal M, Ryan C, Phillips A, Heveran C. The impacts of biomineralization and oil contamination on the compressive strength of waste plastic-filled mortar. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21547. [PMID: 36513740 PMCID: PMC9747956 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25951-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Researchers have made headway against challenges of increasing cement infrastructure and low plastic recycling rates by using waste plastic in cementitious materials. Past studies indicate that microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) to coat plastic in calcium carbonate may improve the strength. The objective of this study was to increase the amount of clean and contaminated waste plastic that can be added to mortar and to assess whether MICP treatment enhances the strength. The performance of plastic-filled mortar was investigated at 5%, 10%, and 20% volume replacement for cement. Untreated, clean plastics at a 20% cement replacement produced compressive strengths acceptable for several applications. However, a coating of MICP on clean waste plastic did not improve the strengths. At 10% replacement, both MICP treatment and washing of contaminated plastics recovered compressive strengths by approximately 28%, relative to mortar containing oil-coated plastics. By incorporating greater volumes of waste plastics into mortar, the sustainability of cementitious composites has the potential of being improved by the dual mechanisms of reduced cement production and repurposing plastic waste.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylee Rux
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA ,grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
| | - Seth Kane
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA ,grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
| | - Michael Espinal
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA ,grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
| | - Cecily Ryan
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA ,grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
| | - Adrienne Phillips
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA ,grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
| | - Chelsea Heveran
- grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA ,grid.41891.350000 0001 2156 6108Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 USA
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36
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Larder RR, Hatton FL. Enabling the Polymer Circular Economy: Innovations in Photoluminescent Labeling of Plastic Waste for Enhanced Sorting. ACS POLYMERS AU 2022; 3:182-201. [PMID: 37065718 PMCID: PMC10103190 DOI: 10.1021/acspolymersau.2c00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
It is widely accepted that moving from a linear to circular economy for plastics will be beneficial to reduce plastic pollution in our environment and to prevent loss of material value. However, challenges within the sorting of plastic waste often lead to contaminated waste streams that can devalue recyclates and hinder reprocessing. Therefore, the improvement of the sorting of plastic waste can lead to dramatic improvements in recyclate quality and enable circularity for plastics. Here, we discuss current sorting methods for plastic waste and review labeling techniques to enable enhanced sorting of plastic recyclates. Photoluminescent-based labeling is discussed in detail, including UV-vis organic and inorganic photoluminescent markers, infrared up-conversion, and X-ray fluorescent markers. Methods of incorporating labels within packaging, such as extrusion, surface coatings, and incorporation within external labels are also discussed. Additionally, we highlight some practical models for implementing some of the sorting techniques and provide an outlook for this growing field of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan R. Larder
- Department of Materials, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona L. Hatton
- Department of Materials, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, United Kingdom
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37
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Dual catalytic activity of antimony (III) oxide: The polymerization catalyst for synthesis of polyethylene terephthalate also catalyze depolymerization. Polym Degrad Stab 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.110180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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38
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Ma T, Wang R, Wang W, Gu W, Yuan Y, Zhang A, Wei J. Studies on the thermal degradation mechanism of polyethylene terephthalate and its 2-carboxy ethyl (phenyl) phosphinic acid copolymers. Polym Degrad Stab 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.110185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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39
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Chen W, Li M, Gu X, Jin L, Chen W, Chen S. Efficient glycolysis of recycling poly(ethylene terephthalate) via combination of organocatalyst and metal salt. Polym Degrad Stab 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.110168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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40
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Hao TY, Xu X, Lin QB, Wu SL, Wu XF, Hu JL, Zhong HN, Dong B, Chen ZF, Ye ZK, Wang ZW. Rapid discrimination of recycled and virgin poly(ethylene terephthalate) based on non-targeted screening of semi-volatile organic compounds using a novel method of DSI/GC×GC-Q-TOF-MS coupled with various chemometrics. Food Packag Shelf Life 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2022.100978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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41
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A Modified Hydrolysis Method of Decolorizing Reactive-Dyed Polycotton Waste Fabric and Extraction of Terephthalic Acid: A Perspective to Reduce Textile Solid Waste. ADVANCES IN POLYMER TECHNOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1155/2022/4325506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
To manage the polycotton textile-waste fabric (PCWF), a modified alkaline hydrolysis method is used for decolorization and separation of polyester as terephthalic acid (TPA). The effects of optimum conditions on TPA yield (%) have been determined to be
. Dye degradations and K/S values are measured by UV-visible spectrophotometer. K/S value of PCWF is 37.06 and separated cotton fabric (SCF) is 0.035, respectively. The chemical functionalities and crystallinity of PCWF, SCF, and TPA are determined by using FTIR and XRD. FTIR peak values are 1684 cm-1, 1574 cm-1, 1512 cm-1, 1280 cm-1, and 1425 cm-1 that prove transformation of polyester to TPA. XRD peaks confirm polyester conversion to TPA, and the values are 17.4, 25.13, 28.12, 29.09, and 38.7. TGA, SEM, and EDX data showed the thermal stability, morphology, and elemental composition of TPA.
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42
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Nikam PC, Rao AR, Shertukde VV. Effect of polyethylene terephthalate fiber reinforced with non‐hydrophilic nano‐silica on the mechanical, thermic, and chemical shielding characteristics of saturated polyurethane composite. J Appl Polym Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/app.53334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pramod C. Nikam
- Department of Polymer and Surface Engineering Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai India
| | - Adarsh R. Rao
- Department of Polymer and Surface Engineering Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai India
| | - Vikrant V. Shertukde
- Department of Polymer and Surface Engineering Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai India
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43
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Tianyi M, Weiwen G, Wang Y, Wang W, Rui W. Thermal degradation and flame retardancy prediction of Fe, Al, and Cu-based metal-organic framework and polyethylene terephthalate nanocomposites using DFT calculation. POLYMER 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2022.125496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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44
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Ngo DM, Lee K, Ho LNT, Lee J, Jung HM. Direct conversion of waste polyesters to low molecular weight polyols for polyurethane production. Polym Degrad Stab 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.110147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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45
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Stroupe ZD, Strange NA, Daemen LL, Larese JZ. Inelastic Neutron Scattering from Thin Film Biaxially Oriented Polyethylene Terephthalate. J Phys Chem A 2022; 126:7491-7501. [PMID: 36201680 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.2c05397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Recent interest in emerging processes for polymer manufacturing and bio-based chemistries for direct chemical recycling/upcycling has motivated new research focused on a deeper understanding of atomic-scale polymer properties and how they influence macroscopic phenomena. Uncovering the fundamental properties of polymers that give rise to macroscopic behavior could enable new pathways for improved recyclability or utilization of alternative "greener" polymer analogues. In this study, the neutron vibrational spectrum was measured for a film of biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BoPET) using inelastic neutron scattering (INS), to investigate the relationship between the structure and dynamics of a widely used polymer. Compared to conventional spectroscopic techniques, the use of INS is advantageous for polymeric materials due to the absence of selection rules (i.e., all transitions are allowed), broad-band energy range, and considerable sensitivity to hydrogen modes. In order to distinguish the vibrational modes caused by trans and gauche rotational isomerism, the normal modes of vibration were calculated from a density functional theory-optimized structure of crystalline PET (cPET), representative of the all-trans state, and compared with INS from "highly crystalline" PET powder. Although in- and out-of-plane wagging of hydrogens on the ring structure exhibit significant contribution to both BoPET and cPET spectra, the wagging, rocking, and twisting modes of hydrogen on the ethylene glycol group are, in most cases, conformation-specific. These results were further rationalized by investigating the role of hyperconjugation in stabilizing both conformations using the natural bond order method. Through comparison of experimental and calculated INS results, this work provides the fundamental basis for discovering the role of structure and dynamics in shaping the macroscopic properties of PET and polymer analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary D Stroupe
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee37996, United States.,UT Institute for Advanced Materials & Manufacturing, Knoxville, Tennessee37920, United States
| | - Nicholas A Strange
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee37996, United States.,Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California94025, United States
| | - Luke L Daemen
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee37831, United States
| | - John Z Larese
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee37996, United States.,UT Institute for Advanced Materials & Manufacturing, Knoxville, Tennessee37920, United States.,Shull-Wollan Center, A Joint Institute for Neutron Sciences, Oak Ridge, Tennessee37831, United States
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46
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Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene/Post-consumer Poly (ethylene terephthalate) Blends: Bottle-to-Bottle recycling. JOURNAL OF POLYMER RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10965-022-03229-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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47
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Zheng Q, Li Z, Watanabe M. Production of Solid Fuels by Hydrothermal Treatment of Wastes of Biomass, Plastic, and Biomass/Plastic Mixtures: A Review. JOURNAL OF BIORESOURCES AND BIOPRODUCTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jobab.2022.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/07/2022] Open
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Takahashi N, Miyanishi Y, Kato R, Amimoto T, Iwamoto Y, Takeda K. Migration of terephthalate from scraps of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) in water and artificial seawater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 838:156053. [PMID: 35597346 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
We report the migration of terephthalate and some low molecular weight organic compounds from poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) scraps in Milli-Q water and artificial seawater (ASW). The photochemical processes and the subsequent dark reactions were investigated using PET scraps obtained from postconsumer bottles of commercial non‑carbonated mineral water. Concentrations of terephthalate exponentially increased with irradiation time, reaching approximately 6-8 μmol L-1 in ASW after 80 h irradiation. The photochemical migrations of compounds related to terephthalate were also observed. Concentrations of terephthalate and related compounds reached higher concentrations in ASW than in Milli-Q water. After 80 h irradiation, two dark experiments were conducted: one on the solutions after irradiation without PET scraps, and the other on photochemically damaged PET scraps. In ASW in the dark without PET scraps, the terephthalate concentration increased, and concentrations of other compounds related to terephthalate also changed. The results suggested that terephthalate was generated by hydrolytic reaction in dark ASW from the scission products of PET which were generated during the irradiation of PET scraps. Photochemically damaged PET scraps released terephthalate and related compounds in the dark. The half-life of the photo-irradiated PET scraps in the dark is approximately 205 years. Our results show that PET bottles in marine environments can continuously release terephthalate and other low molecular weight organic compounds during the day at the sunny surface, at the dark ocean floor, and during the night.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuhiro Takahashi
- Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, 1-7-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8521, Japan
| | - Yuto Miyanishi
- Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-7-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8521, Japan
| | - Ryota Kato
- Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, 1-7-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8521, Japan
| | - Tomoko Amimoto
- Natural Science Center for Basic Research and Development, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8526, Japan
| | - Yoko Iwamoto
- Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, 1-7-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8521, Japan; Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-7-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8521, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Takeda
- Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, 1-7-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8521, Japan; Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-7-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8521, Japan.
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Shukla K. A study on the synthesis of various polyesters from glycerol. JOURNAL OF POLYMER RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10965-022-03221-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Ronkay F, Molnár B, Szabó E, Marosi G, Bocz K. Water boosts reactive toughening of PET. Polym Degrad Stab 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2022.110052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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