Korean red ginseng improves testicular ineffectiveness in aging rats by modulating spermatogenesis-related molecules

The role of red ginseng in men's reproductive health: a literature review

BACKGROUND

Red ginseng (RG) is a traditional herb commonly used in China, Korea, and other East Asian countries. Recently, it has demonstrated a better clinical value in men's reproductive health (MRH). The present review aimed to examine the effects of RG treatment on MRH.

RESULTS

Overall, 42 articles related to RG application in MRH were reviewed, of which 31 were animal experiments and 11 were clinical studies. Furthermore, this review analyzed the use of RG in some male reproductive diseases in clinical trials and determined the associated mechanisms of action. The mechanism of action of RG in MRH may be related to oxidative stress, regulation of sex hormones and spermatogenesis-related proteins, and anti-inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

The application of RG for the treatment of male infertility, erectile dysfunction, and prostate diseases has the potential to contribute to MRH.

Male reproductive ageing: a radical road to ruin

In modern post-transition societies, we are reproducing later and living longer. While the impact of age on female reproductive function has been well studied, much less is known about the intersection of age and male reproduction. Our current understanding is that advancing age brings forth a progressive decline in male fertility accompanied by a reduction in circulating testosterone levels and the appearance of age-dependent reproductive pathologies including benign prostatic hypertrophy and erectile dysfunction. Paternal ageing is also associated with a profound increase in sperm DNA damage, the appearance of multiple epigenetic changes in the germ line and an elevated mutational load in the offspring. The net result of such changes is an increase in the disease burden carried by the progeny of ageing males, including dominant genetic diseases such as Apert syndrome and achondroplasia, as well as neuropsychiatric conditions including autism and spontaneous schizophrenia. The genetic basis of these age-related effects appears to involve two fundamental mechanisms. The first is a positive selection mechanism whereby stem cells containing mutations in a mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway gain a selective advantage over their non-mutant counterparts and exhibit significant clonal expansion with the passage of time. The second is dependent on an age-dependent increase in oxidative stress which impairs the steroidogenic capacity of the Leydig cells, disrupts the ability of Sertoli cells to support the normal differentiation of germ cells, and disrupts the functional and genetic integrity of spermatozoa. Given the central importance of oxidative stress in defining the impact of chronological age on male reproduction, there may be a role for antioxidants in the clinical management of this process. While animal studies are supportive of this strategy, carefully designed clinical trials are now needed if we are to realize the therapeutic potential of this approach in a clinical context.

Testicular aging, male fertility and beyond

Normal spermatogenesis and sperm function are crucial for male fertility. The effects of healthy testicular aging and testicular premature aging on spermatogenesis, sperm function, and the spermatogenesis microenvironment cannot be ignored. Compared with younger men, the testis of older men tends to have disturbed spermatogenic processes, sperm abnormalities, sperm dysfunction, and impaired Sertoli and Leydig cells, which ultimately results in male infertility. Various exogenous and endogenous factors also contribute to pathological testicular premature aging, such as adverse environmental stressors and gene mutations. Mechanistically, Y-chromosomal microdeletions, increase in telomere length and oxidative stress, accumulation of DNA damage with decreased repair ability, alterations in epigenetic modifications, miRNA and lncRNA expression abnormalities, have been associated with impaired male fertility due to aging. In recent years, the key molecules and signaling pathways that regulate testicular aging and premature aging have been identified, thereby providing new strategies for diagnosis and treatment. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the underlying mechanisms of aging on spermatogenesis. Furthermore, potential rescue measures for reproductive aging have been discussed. Finally, the inadequacy of testicular aging research and future directions for research have been envisaged to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of testicular aging and premature aging.

Cordycepin from Medicinal Fungi Cordyceps militaris Mitigates Inflammaging-Associated Testicular Damage via Regulating NF-κB/MAPKs Signaling in Naturally Aged Rats

Inflammaging in male reproductive organs covers a wide variety of problems, including sexual dysfunction and infertility. In this study, the beneficial effects of cordycepin (COR), isolated from potential medicinal fungi Cordyceps militaris, in aging-associated testicular inflammation and serum biochemical changes in naturally aged rats were investigated. Male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into young control (YC), aged control (AC), and COR (5, 10, and 20 mg/kg) treated aged rat groups. Aging-associated serum biochemical changes and inflammatory parameters were analyzed by biochemical assay kits, Western blotting, and real-time RT-PCR. Results showed a significant (p < 0.05) alteration in the total blood cell count, lipid metabolism, and liver functional parameters in AC group when compared with YC group. However, COR-treated aged rats ameliorated the altered biochemical parameters significantly (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 at 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg, respectively). Furthermore, the increase in the expression of inflammatory mediators (COX-2, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tissue necrosis factor-alpha) in aged rat testis was significant (p < 0.05) when compared with YC group. Treatment with COR at 20 mg/kg to aged rats attenuated the increased expression of inflammatory mediators significantly (p < 0.05). Mechanistic studies revealed that the potential attenuating effects exhibited by COR in aged rats was mediated by regulation of NF-κB activation and MAPKs (c-Jun N-terminal kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, and p38) signaling. In conclusion, COR restored the altered serum biochemical parameters in aged rats and ameliorated the aging-associated testicular inflammation proving the therapeutic benefits of COR targeting inflammaging-associated male sexual dysfunctions.

Ginseng® as a reproductive enhancer agent for African catfish, Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822)

Ginseng (Ge) is one of the most famous and precious consumed herbal medicines around the world. Ge plant roots have many advantages regarded as important in increasing fish production. Thus, the present study was conducted to investigate the possibility of using different levels (0.0, 100, and 200 mg/kg diet) of Ge as a reproductive enhancer agent for African catfish, Clarias gariepinus males. Results revealed that fish fed 200 mg Ge/kg diet significantly (P ˂ 0.05) increased growth performance, feed efficiency, gonado-somatic index, hematological parameters, serum follicle-stimulating hormone, total antioxidant capacity, sperm quality parameters, and ultrastructure of spermatozoa, as well as led to positively improved of the histological structure of the testes tissue compared to other treatments. Based on the obtained findings, it could be concluded that the effective use of dietary Ge at a level of 200 mg/kg as a promising reproductive agent for adult African catfish males consequently led to the sustainability of aquaculture for African catfish.

Oxidative Stress and Male Infertility: Role of Herbal Drugs

Infertility is a universal health problem affecting 15% of couples, out of which 20-30% cases are due to male infertility. The leading causes of male infertility include hormonal defects, physical reasons, sexual problems, hazardous environment, stressful lifestyle, genetic factors, epigenetic factors, and oxidative stress. Various physiological functions involve reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitrogen species at appropriate levels for proper smooth functioning. ROS control critical reproductive processes such as capacitation, acrosomal reaction, hyperactivation, egg penetration, and sperm head decondensation. The excessive free radicals or imbalance between ROS and endogenous antioxidant enzymes damages sperm membrane by inducing lipid peroxidation causing mitochondrial dysfunction and DNA damage that eventually lead to male infertility. Numerous synthetic products are available in the market to treat infertility problems, largely ending in side effects and repressing symptoms. Ayurveda contains a particular group of Rasayana herbs, called vajikarana, that deals with nourishment and stimulation of sexual tissues, improves male reproductive vitality, and deals with oxidative stress via antioxidant mechanism. The present study aims to describe oxidative stress and the role of herbal drugs in treating male infertility.

Advances on hormone-like activity of Panax ginseng and ginsenosides

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been paid much attentions due to the prevention and treatment of steroid hormone disorders. Ginseng, the root of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (Araliaceae), is one of the most valuable herbs in complementary and alternative medicines around the world. A series of dammarane triterpenoid saponins, also known as phytosteroids, were reported as the primary ingredients of Ginseng, and indicated broad spectral pharmacological actions, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammation and anti-fatigue. The skeletons of the dammarane triterpenoid aglycone are structurally similar to the steroid hormones. Both in vitro and in vivo studies showed that Ginseng and its active ingredients have beneficial hormone-like role in hormonal disorders. This review thus summarizes the structural similarities between hormones and dammarane ginsenosides and integrates the analogous effect of Ginseng and ginsenosides on prevention and treatment of hormonal disorders published in recent twenty years (1998-2018). The review may provide convenience for anticipate structure-function relationship between saponins structure and hormone-like effect.

Saponins derived from the stems and leaves of Panax ginseng attenuate scrotal heat-induced spermatogenic damage via inhibiting the MAPK mediated oxidative stress and apoptosis in mice

Heat stress (HS) reaction is a stress response caused by adverse conditions. Currently, the incidence of reproductive malignancies particularly in males has been constantly increasing. This work investigated the effects of saponins derived from the stems and leaves of Panax ginseng (GSLS) on testicular injury induced by scrotal hyperthermia in mice. GSLS (150, 300 mg/kg) were administered intragastrically to mice for 14 days, then exposed to a single scrotal heat treatment at 43°C for 18 min on seventh day. HS induced a significant loss of multinucleate giant cells, desquamation of germ cells in destructive seminiferous tubules. Moreover, HS reduced the serum testosterone, testicular tissue superoxide dismutase activity and glutathione (GSH) content, while significantly enhanced the production of malondialdehyde (p < .05). GSLS exhibited the protective potential against HS-induced injury not only by modulating Bcl-2 family and caspase protease family, but also by suppressing the protein levels of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and activation of Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways (p < .05). In conclusion, we clearly demonstrated that GSLS exhibited a significant protective effect against HS-induced testicular dysfunction, mainly the inhibition of oxidative stress associated apoptosis partly via regulation of the MAPK signaling pathway.

Korean Red Ginseng Plays An Anti-Aging Role by Modulating Expression of Aging-Related Genes and Immune Cell Subsets

Despite previous reports of anti-aging effects of Korean red ginseng (KRG), the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Therefore, this study investigated possible mechanisms of KRG-mediated anti-aging effects in aged mice. KRG significantly inhibited thymic involution in old mice. Interestingly, KRG only increased protein expression, but not mRNA expression, of aging-related genes Lin28a, GDF-11, Sirt1, IL-2, and IL-17 in the thymocytes of old mice. KRG also modulated the population of some types of immune cells in old mice. KRG increased the population of regulatory T cells and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)-expressing natural killer (NK) cells in the spleen of old mice, but serum levels of regulatory T cell-specific cytokines IL-10 and TGF-β were unaffected. Finally, KRG recovered mRNA expression of Lin28a, GDF-11, and Sirt1 artificially decreased by concanavalin A (Con A) in both thymocytes and splenocytes of old mice without cytotoxicity. These results suggest that KRG exerts anti-aging effects by preventing thymic involution, as well as modulating the expression of aging-related genes and immune cell subsets.

Comparative transcriptome analysis of the protective effects of Korean Red Ginseng against the influence of bisphenol A in the liver and uterus of ovariectomized mice

Background

Bisphenol A (BPA), known as an endocrine disruptor, is widely used in the world. BPA is reported to cause inflammation-related diseases. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) has been used safely in human for a long time for the treatment of diverse diseases. KRG has been reported of its mitigating effect on menopausal symptoms and suppress adipose inflammation. Here, we investigate the protective effect of orally administered KRG on the impacts of BPA in the liver and uterus of menopausal mice model.

Methods

The transcriptome analysis for the effects of BPA on mice liver was evaluated by Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database–based data (GSE26728). In vivo assay to evaluate the protective effect of KRG on BPA impact in ovariectomized (OVX) mice were designed and analyzed by RNA sequencing.

Results

We first demonstrated that BPA induced 12 kinds of gene set in the liver of normal mice. The administration of BPA and KRG did not change body, liver, and uterine weight in OVX mice. KRG downregulated BPA-induced inflammatory response and chemotaxis-related gene expression. Several gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA)–derived inflammatory response genes increased by BPA were inhibited by KRG in OVX mice.

Conclusion

Our data suggest that BPA has commonly influenced inflammatory response effects on both normal and OVX mice. KRG protects against BPA impact of inflammatory response and chemotaxis in OVX mouse models. Our comparative analysis will provide new insight into the efficacy of KRG on endocrine disrupting chemicals and OVX mouse.

Ginseng for Improving Semen Quality Parameters: A Systematic Review

Purpose

Ginseng has been used as a tonic to improve overall health, restore balance in the body, help the body to heal itself, reduce stress, boost energy, and enhance the immune system. The aim of this review was to assess current evidence that ginseng improves sperm quality.

Materials and Methods

We searched twelve databases (PubMed, EMBASE, AMED, the Cochrane Library, five Korean medical databases, and three Chinese medical databases), using a cut-off date of 1st December 2019. We included clinical studies in which healthy men or men with fertility issues were treated with ginseng. We used Cochrane's risk of bias (ROB) tool to assess the ROB in the studies examined.

Results

From two-hundred and nineteen potentially eligible studies, just five relevant studies were selected (two randomized clinical trials [RCTs], one controlled clinical trial [CCT], and two observational studies). Of these studies, one RCT reported some positive results when using Korean red ginseng to improve sperm quality in infertile men. In addition, the other RCT reported that the effects of ginseng on sperm quality were equivalent to those found when valerian tablets are taken by healthy people. One CCT and two uncontrolled observational studies, however, did not demonstrate the clear effectiveness of ginseng in improving sperm quality in infertile men.

Conclusions

Currently, there are few trials investigating the efficacy of ginseng for improving sperm quality. The available studies demonstrate a high ROB. It can be suggested that overall, the evidence regarding ginseng improving sperm quality is limited.

Effect of Moxibustion on Testosterone Secretion and Apoptosis of Spermatogenic Cells in Aging Rats

Analysis of androgen secretion and sperm production was conducted in the testis to investigate the efficacy of moxibustion on testicular function in aging rats. Male Sprague–Dawley rats were randomly divided into the aging group (N = 8), the mild-warm moxibustion group (N = 8), and the youth control group (N = 8). Rats in the mild-warm moxibustion group (MWMG) were exposed to mild-warm moxibustion at the Zusanli (ST36) and Shenshu (BL23) acupuncture points daily, from the age of 12 months until the age of 24 months. After the intervention, testicular tissue was harvested from all rats across groups. Changes in testicular structure were examined by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stain. Detection of the apoptosis of spermatogenic cells was performed by the TUNEL assay. Testosterone level in the testis was analyzed by the ELISA assay, and the expression of Bax, Bcl-2, and androgen receptor (AR) in the testis was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. AR expression analysis was subsequently performed by the western blotting assay, and the detection of telomerase activity of the testis and the expression of Bax, Bcl-2, and AR mRNA were performed by real-time PCR. Compared with the youth controls, telomerase activity in the testis, testosterone levels, expression of AR, and expression of antiapoptosis factor Bcl-2 protein and mRNA were significantly decreased (P < 0.01) in the aging group. Spermatogenic cell apoptosis (P < 0.01) and proapoptotic factor Bax expression were significantly increased (P < 0.01) in the aging rats compared with the youth control group. The MWMG exhibited significant increases in testicular telomerase activity, testosterone level, AR expression, and antiapoptosis factor Bcl-2 expression (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01) compared with the aging group. In this experimental group, spermatogenic apoptosis was inhibited (P < 0.01) and proapoptotic factor Bax expression significantly reduced (P < 0.01). Mild-warm moxibustion can inhibit reproductive senescence by improving telomerase activity, improving AR expression, restoring testosterone, and inhibiting spermatogenic apoptosis via regulation of Bcl-2/Bax.

Cordycepin, an Active Constituent of Nutrient Powerhouse and Potential Medicinal Mushroom Cordyceps militaris Linn., Ameliorates Age-Related Testicular Dysfunction in Rats

Age-related male sexual dysfunction covers a wide variety of issues, together with spermatogenic and testicular impairment. In the present work, the effects of cordycepin (COR), an active constituent of a nutrient powerhouse Cordyceps militaris Linn, on senile testicular dysfunction in rats was investigated. The sperm kinematics, antioxidant enzymes, spermatogenic factors, sex hormone receptors, histone deacetylating sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), and autophagy-related mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) expression in aged rat testes were evaluated. Sprague Dawley rats were divided into young control (2-month-old; YC), aged control (12-month-old; AC), and aged plus COR-treated groups (5 (COR-5), 10 (COR-10), and 20 (COR-20) mg/kg). The AC group showed reduced sperm kinematics and altered testicular histomorphology compared with the YC group (p < 0.05). However, compared with the AC group, the COR-treated group exhibited improved sperm motility, progressiveness, and average path/straight line velocity (p < 0.05–0.01). Alterations in spermatogenesis-related protein and mRNA expression were significantly ameliorated (p < 0.05) in the COR-20 group compared with the AC group. The altered histone deacetylating SIRT1 and autophagy-related mTORC1 molecular expression in aged rats were restored in the COR-20 group (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the results suggest that COR holds immense nutritional potential and therapeutic value in ameliorating age-related male sexual dysfunctions.

Ginseng for improving semen quality parameters: A protocol of systematic review

BACKGROUND

The aim of this systematic review is to determine whether ginseng is effective in improving sperm quality.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Twelve databases will be searched from their inception to the present date: PubMed, EMBASE, AMED, the Cochrane Library, 5 Korean medical databases (KoreaMed, DBpia, OASIS, the Research Information Service System [RISS], and the Korean Studies Information Service System [KISS]), and 3 Chinese medical databases (China National Knowledge Infrastructure [CNKI], the Wanfang Database, and the Chinese Scientific Journals Database [VIP]). We will include all prospective clinical trials including randomized controlled trials (RCTs), controlled trials, and uncontrolled observational studies. We will exclude case study and case series, and retrospective studies in which healthy men or men with subfertility are treated with any type of ginseng. We will exclude studies comparing the 2 different forms of ginseng. The selection of the studies, data abstraction, and validations will be performed independently by 2 researchers. The risk of bias of the RCTs will be evaluated using the Cochrane's risk of bias assessment tool.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The findings will be disseminated to appropriate audiences via peer-reviewed publications and conference presentations. Our review will provide readers the opportunity to access studies originally published in East Asian languages that they would otherwise be unable to read.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

PROSPERO 2017 CRD42017078797.