EFSA GMO Panel Working Group on Animal Feeding Trials. Safety and nutritional assessment of GM plants and derived food and feed: the role of animal feeding trials

Safety assessment of enzymatically converted chicken bile as a novel food material: Genotoxicity, teratogenicity, and acute and subchronic toxicity studies

Enzymatically converted chicken bile (CB), prepared by converting taurine deoxycholic acid (TCDCA) to taurine ursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) in CB, possesses various functional activities. But their nutrient composition and safety assessment have not been fully investigated yet. CB was mainly composed of proteins and steroids. CB did not show genotoxic effects based on Ames test, mammalian erythrocyte micronucleus test, and in vitro mammalian chromosomal aberration test. There were no growth abnormalities or deaths in the acute toxicity test for mice, indicating that CB is nontoxic with an LD50 > 10 g/kg·body weight (BW). Subchronic toxicity test and genotoxicity test were performed based on intake of 0.5 g CB per person daily at expanded doses of 33.3, 100, and 300 times (278, 833, and 2500 mg/kg·BW). The result indicated that CB at 833 mg/kg·BW showed no toxicity on BW, body weight gain, food intake, hematological, serum biochemistry, absolute/relative organ weights, urinalysis, and pathological features of rats in the subchronic toxicity test, while CB at 833 mg/kg·BW induced maternal toxicity with no fetus teratogenicity or embryotoxicity in the teratogenicity test. In conclusion, CB did not show toxic effects and a long-term daily intake of CB at 0.5 g per person is considered safe, but pregnant women should avoid it. These findings could provide a reference for the safe use of CB in functional food.

Liver Antioxidant Capacity and Steatosis in Laying Hens Exposed to Various Quantities of Lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) Seeds in the Diet

Despite the many beneficial properties of legume plants, their use in diets for poultry is limited by the presence of antinutritional factors. The aim of the study was to determine the activity of DT-diaphorase, ethoxycoumarin O-deethylase, and catalase, and the concentration of malondialdehyde in liver tissue, as well as the activity of SOD and CAT in the serum of Hy-line Brown hens fed a diet supplemented with various doses of Lupinus angustifolius seeds. The results indicate that the use of large amounts of lupin in the diet resulted in an increase in MDA concentration in the liver and the lipid vacuolization of hepatocytes. A significant increase in DTD activity was observed in chickens receiving 15% lupin. Regardless of lupin dose, no increase in SOD activity was observed in chicken serum after 33 days of the experiment. From the 66th day of the experiment, an increase in catalase activity in the serum of laying hens was observed, while low activity of this enzyme was found in the liver. It can be concluded that the short-term use of lupin in the diet of laying hens does not affect the activity of antioxidant enzymes and, therefore, does not affect the oxidative-antioxidant balance of their body.

Processes for regulating genetically modified and gene edited plants

Innovation in agriculture has been essential in improving productivity of crops and forages to support a growing population, improving living standards while contributing toward maintaining environment integrity, human health, and wellbeing through provision of more nutritious, varied, and abundant food sources. A crucial part of that innovation has involved a range of techniques for both expanding and exploiting the genetic potential of plants. However, some techniques used for generating new variation for plant breeders to exploit are deemed higher risk than others despite end products of both processes at times being for all intents and purposes identical for the benefits they provide. As a result, public concerns often triggered by poor communication from innovators, resulting in mistrust and suspicion has, in turn, caused the development of a range of regulatory systems. The logic and motivations for modes of regulation used are reviewed and how the benefits from use of these technologies can be delivered more efficiently and effectively is discussed.

Post-genomic era in agriculture and veterinary science: successful and proposed application of genetic targeting technologies

Gene editing tools have become an indispensable part of research into the fundamental aspects of cell biology. With a vast body of literature having been generated based on next generation sequencing technologies, keeping track of this ever-growing body of information remains challenging. This necessitates the translation of genomic data into tangible applications. In order to address this objective, the generated Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) data forms the basis for targeted genome editing strategies, employing known enzymes of various cellular machinery, in generating organisms with specifically selected phenotypes. This review focuses primarily on CRISPR/Cas9 technology in the context of its advantages over Zinc finger proteins (ZNF) and Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN) and meganucleases mutagenesis strategies, for use in agricultural and veterinary applications. This review will describe the application of CRISPR/Cas9 in creating modified organisms with custom-made properties, without the undesired non-targeted effects associated with virus vector vaccines and bioactive molecules produced in bacterial systems. Examples of the successful and unsuccessful applications of this technology to plants, animals and microorganisms are provided, as well as an in-depth look into possible future trends and applications in vaccine development, disease resistance and enhanced phenotypic traits will be discussed.

Extended one generation reproductive toxicity study and effect on gut flora of genetically modified rice rich in β-carotene in wistar rats

To evaluate the reproductive toxicity of gene modified rice generated by introducing phytoene synthase (Psy) and bacterial phytoene desaturase (CrtI) from maize and Erwinia uredovora, Wistar rats were allocated into 3 groups and fed with Psy and CrtI gene modified rice mixture diet (GM group), non-gene modified rice mixture diet (non-GM group), and AIN-93 diet (Blank control group) from parental generation (F0) to the offsprings (F1). GM rice, Heijinmi (HJM) and Non-GM rice, Heishuai (HS), were both formulated into diets at ratios of 73.5% and 75.5% according to the AIN93 diet for rodent animals, respectively. Relative to the non-GM group, no biologically relevant differences were observed in GM group rats concerning reproductive performance such as fertility rate, gestation rate, mean duration, hormone level, and reproductive organ pathology. The developmental parameters results were not significantly different from the non-GM group such as body weight, food consumption, developmental neurotoxicity, behavior, hematology, and serum chemistry. In terms of immunotoxicity, the IgG indicators of offspring from the GM group improved in contrast with the non-GM group. Additional gut flora analysis of F0 generation rats resulted as that the treatment elicited an increased gut microflora diversity of F0 rats. And no horizontal gene transfer of Psy and CrtI genes in rats fed a GM rice HJM diet. In conclusion, we found no adverse effects related to GM rice in the extended one-generation reproductive toxicity study, indicating that GM rice is a safe alternative for its counterpart rice regarding reproductive toxicity.

Integrating (Nutri-)Metabolomics into the One Health Tendency-The Key for Personalized Medicine Advancement

Metabolomics is an advanced technology, still under development, with multiple research applications, especially in the field of health. Individual metabolic profiles, the functionality of the body, as well as its interaction with the environment, can be established using this technology. The body's response to various external factors, including the food consumed and the nutrients it contains, has increased researchers' interest in nutrimetabolomics. Establishing correlations between diet and the occurrence of various diseases, or even the development of personalized nutrition plans, could contribute to advances in precision medicine. The interdependence between humans, animals, and the environment is of particular importance today, with the dramatic emergence and spread of zoonotic diseases, food, water and soil contamination, and the degradation of resources and habitats. All these events have led to an increase in risk factors for functional diseases, burdening global health. Thus, this study aimed to highlight the importance of metabolomics, and, in particular, nutrimetabolomics, as a technical solution for a holistic, collaborative, and precise approach for the advancement of the One Health strategy.

Genetic engineering and genome editing in plants, animals and humans: Facts and myths

Human history is inextricably linked to the introduction of desirable heritable traits in plants and animals. Selective breeding (SB) predates our historical period and has been practiced since the advent of agriculture and farming more than ten thousand years ago. Since the 1970s, methods of direct plant and animal genome manipulation are constantly being developed. These are collectively described as "genetic engineering" (GE). Plant GE aims to improve nutritional value, insect resistance and weed control. Animal GE has focused on livestock improvement and disease control. GE applications also involve medical improvements intended to treat human disease. The scientific consensus built around marketed products of GE organisms (GEOs) is usually well established, noting significant benefits and low risks. GEOs are exhaustively scrutinized in the EU and many non-EU countries for their effects on human health and the environment, but scrutiny should be equally applied to all previously untested organisms derived directly from nature or through selective breeding. In fact, there is no evidence to suggest that natural or selectively bred plants and animals are in principle safer to humans than GEOs. Natural and selectively bred strains evolve over time via genetic mutations that can be as risky to humans and the environment as the mutations found in GEOs. Thus, previously untested plant and animal strains aimed for marketing should be proven useful or harmful to humans only upon comparative testing, regardless of their origin. Highlighting the scientific consensus declaring significant benefits and rather manageable risks provided by equitably accessed GEOs, can mitigate negative predispositions by policy makers and the public. Accordingly, we provide an overview of the underlying technologies and the scientific consensus to help resolve popular myths about the safety and usefulness of GEOs.

RuBisCO as a protein source for potential food applications: a review

RuBisCO is a complete protein, widely abundant and recognized as ideal for human consumption. Further, its biochemical composition, organoleptic and physical features mean RuBisCO has potential as a nutritionally beneficial food additive. Nonetheless, despite growing plant-based market trends, there is a lack of information about the applications of this protein. Here, we explored the biochemical features of RuBisCO as a potential food additive and compared it with other plant protein sources currently available. We describe potential advantages, including nutritional content, digestibility, non-allergenicity and, potential bioactivities. Despite the lack of industrial procedures for RuBisCO purification, a growing number of novel methods are emerging, justifying discussion of their feasibilities. Overall, this information can help both researchers and industry to review the use RuBisCO as a sustainable source of protein for plant-based food products or formulation of novel functional foods.

Application of Aroma Precursors in Food Plant Raw Materials: Biotechnological Aspect

The article is devoted to the analysis of the main factors accompanying the use of aroma precursors, in particular, of a lipid nature, in food raw materials. The prerequisites for the impact on the precursors of aroma with the help of plant enzymes are given. The purpose of the article is to analyze the biotechnological aspect, which is based on enzymatic reactions with aroma precursors and enzymes of plant origin. Features of the mechanism of action of lipid precursors are highlighted, their diversity causing various characteristic reactions is analyzed, and possible end products of reactions with certain odors are noted. The attention is paid to the issue of the status of the naturalness of flavor precursors in food products, which varies in different countries. A scheme of factors influencing the formation of aroma from lipid precursors has been developed. The influence of pigments of carotenoid nature on the aroma is considered, namely: examples of instantaneous change of watermelon aroma to pumpkin one due to isomerization of carotenoids are given. The main factors of enzymatic formation of aroma from precursors of polyunsaturated fatty acids for their effective use by creating micromicelles are summarized. A way to overcome the barrier of interaction between lipid precursors of a hydrophobic nature and hydrophilic enzymes has been substantiated. It is proposed to accelerate enzymatic reactions under in vitro conditions and use the vacuum effect to overcome the barrier between enzymes and precursors. To explain the effect of vacuum in a system with enzymes, ideas about disjoining pressure and the reasonable expediency of its use are considered. A schematic process flow diagram for the restoration of aroma lost during the technological processing of raw materials is given; it demonstrates the factors for ensuring interfacial activation conditions for enzymes and aroma precursors.

Oral toxicity evaluation of genetically modified lactic acid bacteria in three generations of Sprague Dawley rats

Genetic modification has great advantages in improving performance of bacteria, but its oral safety has not been systematically evaluated. In this study, the toxicity including the reproductive toxicity of two genetically modified bacteria engineered using food-grade vectors on three generations of rats (F0, F1 and F2) were studied. Sprague Dawley rats were administrated by gavage with corresponding parent and genetically modified Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus delbrueckii at 2.5 × 10 ⁹ CFU every other day for 8 weeks. Results showed that the transgenic Lactobacillus had no significant toxicity to the body weight, food intake or blood biochemical parameters of three generations of rats. There was no significant effect on the reproductive parameters (gestational weight and pregnancy time) and related hormones (FSH, LH, estradiol, progesterone and testosterone) of the parent rats (F0 and F1). Consistently, their offsprings had no abnormal physical conditions including body weight, body length and anogenital distances. Moreover, their pups had normal body organ weight and reasonable abnormal sperm rate. Further analyses were conducted to evaluate SOD, MDA and GPX of the ovarium in the F1 and F2 female rats, which showed no malady phenotypes. In conclusion, transgenic Lactobacillus has no toxicity to the three generations of rats.

Cancer metabolism control by natural products: Pyruvate kinase M2 targeting therapeutics

Glycolysis is the primary source of energy for cancer growth and metastasis. The shift in metabolism from mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation to aerobic glycolysis is called the Warburg effect. Cancer progression due to aerobic glycolysis is often associated with the activation of oncogenes or the loss of tumor suppressors. Therefore, inhibition of glycolysis is one of the effective strategies in cancer control. Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) is a key glycolytic enzyme overexpressed in breast, prostate, lung, colorectal, and liver cancers. Here, we discuss published studies regarding PKM2 inhibitors from natural products that are promising drug candidates for cancer therapy. We have highlighted the potential of natural PKM2 inhibitors for various cancer types. Moreover, we encourage researchers to evaluate the combinational effects between natural and synthetic PKM2 inhibitors. Also, further high-quality studies are needed to firmly establish the clinical efficacy of natural products.

Labeling of Genetically Modified (GM) Foods in Peru: Current Dogma and Insights of the Regulatory and Legal Statutes

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected and afflicted human lives and been a transformative catalyst leading to closure of many companies, disrupting mental health, and reducing access to food and exacerbating food insecurity. This presents an opportunity to reflect on and examine genetically modified (GM) foods and their effective legislative regulation for the benefit of consumers. This review presents a detailed analysis of GM foods' regulation in Peru and the analysis of certain specific cases that show the need for greater regulation of the industry.

The Nutritional Composition of Natural and Organic Branded Food Products: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Greek Foodscape

Modern consumers turn to foods marketed as ‘natural/organic’ in their pursuit of healthier options. However, research that links such claims made on pack with improved nutritional composition is limited. The current analysis used data from all packaged foods available in the Hellenic Food Thesaurus (n = 4002), sold in Greece from 09/2020 to 01/2021, to map the prevalence of packaged foods sold under a ‘natural/organic’ claim and to compare their nutritional composition against food group matched conventional counterparts. Statistical analysis was carried out using IBM SPSS Statistics^®. Overall, ‘free from’ was the most commonly used claim (12.3%), followed by ‘natural/pure’ (9.1%), ‘fresh’ (4.6%), and ‘bio/organic’ (3.3%). Statistically significant differences between the nutritional composition of natural/organic and conventional foods were only found in 5 out of the 13 food categories and in 9 out of 39 subcategories. Being labelled as natural/organic was linked to improved nutritional composition for prepared foods and yogurts, while for breakfast cereal, there was a mixed effect with lower carbohydrate content but higher energy and fat content. Jams labelled as natural/organic had higher energy and total sugar content. Overall, evidence of an association between being labelled as natural/organic and having an improved nutritional composition was extremely rare.

A 90-Day Safety Study of Meat from MSTN and FGF5 Double-Knockout Sheep in Wistar Rats

MSTN and FGF5 gene knockout sheep generated by the CRISPR/Cas9 system exhibit the ‘double-muscle’ phenotype, and increased density and length of hairs, providing valuable new breeding material. In a previous study, we obtained MSTN and FGF5 double-knockout sheep of significant breeding value. In this study, we carried out a 90-day feeding study in Wistar rats to assess the safety of genome-edited mutton. Seven rat groups with 10 females and 10 males per group were fed different concentrations (3.75%, 7.5%, and 15%) of double-knockout mutton or wild-type mutton in a conventional commercial diet for 90 days. At the end of the feeding, routine urine and blood tests and measurements of blood biochemical indicators were performed. Furthermore, the major organs of each group of rats were weighed and examined histopathologically. Although there were significant differences among the groups in some parameters, all values were within the normal ranges. Therefore, the 90-day rat feeding study showed that the meat from MSTN and FGF5 double-knockout sheep did not have any long-term adverse effects on rat health. This study also provides valuable reference information for assessing the safety of meat from animals with knockout of multiple genes.

Enhancing climate resilience of irrigated agriculture: A review

Emerging evidence showing trends in climate change with a strong likelihood those changes will continue elevates the importance of finding affordable adaptations by irrigated agriculture. Successful climate adaptation measures are needed to affordably sustain irrigated agriculture in the face of elevated carbon emissions affecting the reliability of water supplies. Numerous potential adaptation options are available for adjusting irrigated agricultural systems to implement climate risk adaptation. This work focuses on addressing the gap in the literature defined by a scarcity of reviews on measures to elevate the capacity of irrigated agriculture to enhance its climate change resilience. Accordingly, the original contribution of this work is to review the literature describing measures for enhancing climate resilience by irrigated agriculture. In addition, it describes the role of economic analysis to discover affordable measures to enhance resilience by irrigated agriculture. It achieves those aims by posing the question "What principles, practices, and recent developments are available to guide discovery of measures to improve resilience by irrigated agriculture to adapt to ongoing evidence of climate change?" It addresses that question by reviewing several risk reduction measures to control the economic cost of losses to irrigators in the face of growing water supply unreliability. Following this review, a role for optimizing a portfolio of climate adaptation measures is described, followed by a discussion of potential contributions that can be made by the use of hydroeconomic analysis. Results provide a framework for economic analysis to discover economically attractive methods to elevate resilience of irrigated agriculture.

Safety assessment of phytase transgenic maize 11TPY050 in Sprague-Dawley rats by 90-day feeding study

The present study aimed to evaluate the subchronic toxicity of feeding with phytase-transgenic maize line 11TPY050 in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Rats (n = 10/sex/group) were fed with 12.5%, 25% or 50% (w/w) transgenic maize diet, 12.5%, 25% or 50% (w/w) non-transgenic isoline OSL940 maize diet, or 50% (w/w) commercially available Zhengdan958 maize diet for 90 days. Daily clinical observations and weekly measurements of body weights and food consumption were conducted. Blood samples were collected on day 46 and day 91 for hematology and clinical chemistry evaluations. At the end of the study, macroscopic and microscopic examinations were performed. No effects on body weight and food consumption were observed. The results of hematology, clinical chemistry, and absolute and relative organ weights in the transgenic maize group were comparable to those in the parental maize group. Several statistical differences were not dose-related and were not considered to be biologically significant. Furthermore, the terminal necropsy and histopathological examination showed no treatment-related changes among the groups. The results from the present 90-day feeding study of phytase-transgenic maize 11TPY050 indicated no unexpected adverse effects in SD rats. The phytase transgenic maize 11TPY050 has substantial equivalence with non-transgenic maize.

Advanced Bio-Based Polymers for Astrocyte Cell Models

The development of in vitro neural tissue analogs is of great interest for many biomedical engineering applications, including the tissue engineering of neural interfaces, treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, and in vitro evaluation of cell-material interactions. Since astrocytes play a crucial role in the regenerative processes of the central nervous system, the development of biomaterials that interact favorably with astrocytes is of great research interest. The sources of human astrocytes, suitable natural biomaterials, guidance scaffolds, and ligand patterned surfaces are discussed in the article. New findings in this field are essential for the future treatment of spinal cord and brain injuries.

Subchronic Oral Toxicity Study of Genetically Modified Rice Rich in β-Carotene in Wistar Rats

(1) Background: a hybrid black rice rich in β-carotene carrying the psy and crtI genes (HJM) was evaluated in Wistar rats by a 90-day feeding study, aiming to assess its dietary safety. (2) Methods: the HJM rice and its parental line HS were included in rats' diets at levels of 73.5% and 75.5%, respectively. The AIN-93 diet was administered as a nutritional control. No adverse effects on animal behavior or weight gain were observed during the study. Blood samples were collected and analyzed, and standard hematological and biochemical parameters were compared. (3) Results: Some parameters were found to be significantly different, though they remained within the normal range for rats of this breed and age. In addition, upon sacrifice, various organs were weighed, and macroscopic and histopathological examinations were performed, with only minor changes to report. (4) Conclusions: HJM rice exhibited no adverse or toxic effects in Wistar rats in this 90-day study.

Commercial Release of Genetically Modified Crops in Africa: Interface Between Biosafety Regulatory Systems and Varietal Release Systems

African countries face key challenges in the deployment of GM crops due to incongruities in the processes for effective and efficient commercial release while simultaneously ensuring food and environmental safety. Against the backdrop of the preceding scenario, and for the effective and efficient commercial release of GM crops for cultivation by farmers, while simultaneously ensuring food and environmental safety, there is a need for the close collaboration of and the interplay between the biosafety competent authorities and the variety release authorities. The commercial release of genetically modified (GM) crops for cultivation requires the approval of biosafety regulatory packages. The evaluation and approval of lead events fall under the jurisdiction of competent national authorities for biosafety (which may be ministries, autonomous authorities, or agencies). The evaluation of lead events fundamentally comprises a review of environmental, food, and feed safety data as provided for in the Biosafety Acts, implementing regulations, and, in some cases, the involvement of other relevant legal instruments. Although the lead GM event may be commercially released for farmers to cultivate, it is often introgressed into locally adapted and farmer preferred non-GM cultivars that are already released and grown by the farmers. The introduction of new biotechnology products to farmers is a process that includes comprehensive testing in the laboratory, greenhouse, and field over some time. The process provides answers to questions about the safety of the products before being introduced into the environment and marketplace. This is the first step in regulatory approvals. The output of the research and development phase of the product development cycle is the identification of a safe and best performing event for advancement to regulatory testing, likely commercialization, and general release. The process of the commercial release of new crop varieties in countries with established formal seed systems is guided by well-defined procedures and approval systems and regulated by the Seed Acts and implemented regulations. In countries with seed laws, no crop varieties are approved for commercial cultivation prior to the fulfillment of the national performance trials and the distinctness, uniformity, and stability tests, as well as prior to the approval by the National Variety Release Committee. This review outlines key challenges faced by African countries in the deployment of GM crops and cites lessons learned as well as best practices from countries that have successfully commercialized genetically engineered crops.

The GMO90+ Project: Absence of Evidence for Biologically Meaningful Effects of Genetically Modified Maize-based Diets on Wistar Rats After 6-Months Feeding Comparative Trial

The GMO90+ project was designed to identify biomarkers of exposure or health effects in Wistar Han RCC rats exposed in their diet to 2 genetically modified plants (GMP) and assess additional information with the use of metabolomic and transcriptomic techniques. Rats were fed for 6-months with 8 maize-based diets at 33% that comprised either MON810 (11% and 33%) or NK603 grains (11% and 33% with or without glyphosate treatment) or their corresponding near-isogenic controls. Extensive chemical and targeted analyses undertaken to assess each diet demonstrated that they could be used for the feeding trial. Rats were necropsied after 3 and 6 months. Based on the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development test guideline 408, the parameters tested showed a limited number of significant differences in pairwise comparisons, very few concerning GMP versus non-GMP. In such cases, no biological relevance could be established owing to the absence of difference in biologically linked variables, dose-response effects, or clinical disorders. No alteration of the reproduction function and kidney physiology was found. Metabolomics analyses on fluids (blood, urine) were performed after 3, 4.5, and 6 months. Transcriptomics analyses on organs (liver, kidney) were performed after 3 and 6 months. Again, among the significant differences in pairwise comparisons, no GMP effect was observed in contrast to that of maize variety and culture site. Indeed, based on transcriptomic and metabolomic data, we could differentiate MON- to NK-based diets. In conclusion, using this experimental design, no biomarkers of adverse health effect could be attributed to the consumption of GMP diets in comparison with the consumption of their near-isogenic non-GMP controls.

Safety Assessment of Genetically Modified Feed: Is There Any Difference From Food?

Food security is one of major concerns for the growing global population. Modern agricultural biotechnologies, such as genetic modification, are a possible solution through enabling an increase of production, more efficient use of natural resources, and reduced environmental impacts. However, new crop varieties with altered genetic materials may be subjected to safety assessments to fulfil the regulatory requirements, prior to marketing. The aim of the assessment is to evaluate the impact of products from the new crop variety on human, animal, and the environmental health. Although, many studies on the risk assessment of genetically modified (GM) food have been published, little consideration to GM feedstuff has been given, despite that between 70 to 90% of all GM crops and their biomass are used as animal feed. In addition, in some GM plants such as forages that are only used for animal feeds, the assessment of the genetic modification may be of relevance only to livestock feeding. In this article, the regulatory framework of GM crops intended for animal feed is reviewed using the available information on GM food as the baseline. Although, the majority of techniques used for the safety assessment of GM food can be used in GM feed, many plant parts used for livestock feeding are inedible to humans. Therefore, the concentration of novel proteins in different plant tissues and level of exposure to GM feedstuff in the diet of target animals should be considered. A further development of specific methodologies for the assessment of GM crops intended for animal consumption is required, in order to provide a more accurate and standardized assessment to the GM feed safety.

Weight of the evidence: independent research projects confirm industry conclusions on the safety of insect-protected maize MON 810

The cumulative weight of the evidence demonstrates the safety and equivalence of genetically engineered (GE) crops compared to the conventional varieties from which they have been derived. Confirmatory toxicology and animal nutrition studies have nevertheless become an expected/mandated component of GE crop safety assessments, despite the lack of additional value these studies provide for product safety assessment. Characterization and safety data (e.g. trait protein safety; molecular, compositional, and agronomic/phenotypic assessments), and animal feeding studies form a weight of the evidence supporting the safety of insect-protected maize MON 810. Independent animal testing has recently confirmed the lack of MON 810 toxicity in subchronic and chronic toxicity studies. These results could have been predicted from the available safety data. Animal testing of GE crops should be supported by testable scientific hypotheses and testing should be consistent with ethical obligations to reduce, refine, and replace (3Rs) animal testing when possible.

Risk assessment of genetically modified sugarcane expressing AVP1 gene

Biosafety is a multidisciplinary approach that encompasses social, societal, ethical issues and policies for the regulations of genetically modified (GM) organisms. The potential health risks associated with GM sugarcane containing AVP1 gene confers resistance against drought and salinity were evaluated by animal feeding studies and some genotoxicity assays. Acute and sub-chronic toxicity examinations were carried out via oral dose administration of GM sugarcane juice supplemented with the normal diet (modified from certified rodent standard diet) on Wistar rats. AVP1 protein concentration in sugarcane juice was 1mg/1 mL. Biochemical, haematological blood analyses were performed and the results revealed that there were non-significant differences among all the treatment groups; GM sugarcane juice, non-GM sugarcane juice and the control group (normal diet and water). Genotoxicity assessment based on the comet assay and the micronucleus assay data exhibited that AVP1 GM sugarcane was not genotoxic or cytotoxic in rat's peripheral blood. These research findings supported the conclusion that GM AVP1 sugarcane was non-toxic in experimental animals. Therefore, data generated through this research work would be helpful for the commercial release of GM AVP1 sugarcane.

Recombinant expression of osmotin in barley improves stress resistance and food safety during adverse growing conditions

BACKGROUND

Although many genetic manipulations of crops providing biofortified or safer food have been done, the acceptance of biotechnology crops still remains limited. We report on a transgenic barley expressing the multi-functional protein osmotin that improves plant defense under stress conditions.

METHODS

An Agrobacterium-mediated technique was used to transform immature embryos of the spring barley cultivar Golden Promise. Transgenic barley plants of the T0 and T1 generation were evaluated by molecular methods. Transgenic barley tolerance to stress was determined by chlorophyll, total protein, malondialdehyde and ascorbate peroxidase content. Methanol extracts of i) Fusarium oxysporum infected or ii) salt-stressed plants, were characterized by their acute toxicity effect on human dermal fibroblasts (HDF), genotoxicity and affection of biodiversity interactions, which was tested through monitoring barley natural virus pathogen-host interactions-the BYDV and WDV viruses transmitted to the plants by aphids and leafhoppers.

RESULTS

Transgenic plants maintained the same level of chlorophyll and protein, which significantly declined in wild-type barley under the same stressful conditions. Salt stress evoked higher ascorbate peroxidase level and correspondingly less malondialdehyde. Osmotin expressing barley extracts exhibited a lower cytotoxicity effect of statistical significance than that of wild-type plants under both types of stress tested on human dermal fibroblasts. Extract of Fusarium oxysporum infected transgenic barley was not able to damage DNA in the Comet assay, which is in opposite to control plants. Moreover, this particular barley did not affect the local biodiversity.

CONCLUSION

Our findings provide a new perspective that could help to evaluate the safety of products from genetically modified crops.

Protective Effects of Moderate Ca Supplementation against Cd-Induced Bone Damage under Different Population-Relevant Doses in Young Female Rats

Estimation of the skeleton-protective effects of Ca in Cd-induced bone damage is helpful in the assessment of Cd health risk. The aim of this study was to identify whether Ca supplementation during exposure to different population-relevant doses of Cd can prevent Cd-induced bone damage under the tolerable upper intake level of Ca supplementation. Young female Sprague-Dawley rats were given different population-relevant doses of Cd (1, 5, and 50 mg Cd/kg diet) and Ca supplementation (0.4% Ca supplementation) intervention. Ca supplementation significantly decreased Cd-induced bone microstructure damage, increased bone biomechanics (p < 0.05), serum bone formation marker level (p < 0.05) and expression of osteogenic gene markers exposure to the 5 and 50 mg Cd/kg diets. However, it had no impact on these indicators under the 1 mg Cd/kg diets, with the exception of expression of osteogenic marker genes. Ca supplementation significantly decreased serum Klotho level (p < 0.05), and fibroblast growth factor 23/Klotho-associated gene expression in the kidney and bone showed significant changes. In conclusion, Ca supplementation has a positive effect on bone formation and bone quality against the damaging impact of Cd, especially with exposure to the 5 mg and 50 mg Cd/kg diet, which may be related to its impact on the fibroblast growth factor 23/Klotho axis.

Lack of adverse effects in subchronic and chronic toxicity/carcinogenicity studies on the glyphosate-resistant genetically modified maize NK603 in Wistar Han RCC rats

In 2012, a controversial study on the long-term toxicity of a Roundup herbicide and the glyphosate-tolerant genetically modified (GM) maize NK603 was published. The EC-funded G-TwYST research consortium tested the potential subchronic and chronic toxicity as well as the carcinogenicity of the glyphosate-resistant genetically modified maize NK603 by performing two 90-day feeding trials, one with GM maize inclusion rates of 11 and 33% and one with inclusion rates of up to 50%, as well as a 2-year feeding trial with inclusion rates of 11 and 33% in male and female Wistar Han RCC rats by taking into account OECD Guidelines for the testing of chemicals and EFSA recommendations on the safety testing of whole-food/feed in laboratory animals. In all three trials, the NK603 maize, untreated and treated once with Roundup during its cultivation, and the conventional counterpart were tested. Differences between each test group and the control group were evaluated. Equivalence was assessed by comparing the observed difference to differences between non-GM reference groups in previous studies. In case of significant differences, whether the effects were dose-related and/or accompanied by changes in related parameters including histopathological findings was evaluated. It is concluded that no adverse effects related to the feeding of the NK603 maize cultivated with or without Roundup for up to 2 years were observed. Based on the outcome of the subchronic and combined chronic toxicity/carcinogenicity studies, recommendations on the scientific justification and added value of long-term feeding trials in the GM plant risk assessment process are presented.

Effects of Transgenic Bt Rice Containing the Cry1Ab Protein on the Gastrointestinal Health of Highly Inbred Wuzhishan Pigs after Two Generations of Feeding

To assess the safety of transgenic Bt rice, we evaluated the chronic effects of Bt rice carrying the Cry1Ab protein (1.64 mg/kg) on the gut microbiota and histopathology in highly inbred Wuzhishan pigs (WZSP) in a two-generation feeding study. The WZSP of the f0 ( n = 26) and f1 ( n = 27) generations were divided into GM and Non-GM groups and fed for 360 and 420 days with Bt and isogenic parent-line rice, respectively. The high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing results revealed that the relative abundance of the family Enterobacteriaceae and genus Escherichia were significantly different between f1F and f1Z. The level of the genera CF231 and SMB53 in the f0Z group was higher than that in the f0F group. In addition, no abnormal histopathology changes in the main gastrointestinal tissues were found after feeding with Bt rice. In conclusion, Bt rice consumption has no adverse effects on the gut microbiota or organ function of WZSP.

Food and feed safety of DAS-444Ø6-6 herbicide-tolerant soybean

DAS-444Ø6-6 soybean was genetically engineered (GE) to withstand applications of three different herbicides. Tolerance to glufosinate and glyphosate is achieved through expression of the phosphinothricin acetyltransferase (PAT) and double-mutated maize 5-enolpyruvyl shikimate-3-phosphate synthase (2mEPSPS) enzymes, respectively. These proteins are expressed in currently commercialized crops and represent no novel risk. Tolerance to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is achieved through expression of the aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase 12 (AAD-12) enzyme, which is novel in crops. The safety of the AAD-12 protein and DAS-444Ø6-6 event was assessed for food and feed safety based on the weight of evidence and found to be as safe as non-GE soybean.

Effects of 60-Week Feeding Diet Containing Bt Rice Expressing the Cry1Ab Protein on the Offspring of Inbred Wuzhishan Pigs Fed the Same Diet

We evaluated the chronic effects of Bt rice carrying the Cry1Ab protein (1.64 mg/kg) on offspring of highly inbred WZSP, fed with Bt rice for 360 days, in a 60-week feeding study. The WZSP offspring (n = 27) were assigned to two groups (Minghui86 group, female n = 6, male n = 5; Bt group, female n = 11, male n = 5). The average obtained Cry1Ab protein dosage for female and male pigs was 1.003 and 1.234 mg/kg body weight after 10 weeks of feeding, respectively. The experimental feed in the study was nutritionally matched in both groups. The average daily gain and feed conversion ratio of the females in week 3 and males from weeks 1 to 10 were different between the Bt and Minghui86 groups (P < 0.05), and the body weight of the male pigs in week 2 was greater in the Minghui86 group than that of the Bt group (P < 0.05). No other differences were observed, and there were no significant differences in the serum sex steroid level, hematology parameters, relative organ weights, or histopathology. Although differences in some serum chemistry parameters (alanine aminotransferase of female pigs and alkaline phosphatase of male pigs) were observed, they were not considered treatment-related. On the basis of these results, long-term intake of transgenic rice carrying Cry1Ab protein exerts no unintended adverse effects on WZSP offspring.

Safety Assessment of Food and Feed from GM Crops in Europe: Evaluating EFSA's Alternative Framework for the Rat 90-day Feeding Study

Regulatory-compliant rodent subchronic feeding studies are compulsory regardless of a hypothesis to test, according to recent EU legislation for the safety assessment of whole food/feed produced from genetically modified (GM) crops containing a single genetic transformation event (European Union Commission Implementing Regulation No. 503/2013). The Implementing Regulation refers to guidelines set forth by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) for the design, conduct, and analysis of rodent subchronic feeding studies. The set of EFSA recommendations was rigorously applied to a 90-day feeding study in Sprague-Dawley rats. After study completion, the appropriateness and applicability of these recommendations were assessed using a battery of statistical analysis approaches including both retrospective and prospective statistical power analyses as well as variance-covariance decomposition. In the interest of animal welfare considerations, alternative experimental designs were investigated and evaluated in the context of informing the health risk assessment of food/feed from GM crops.

Improved growth performance, food efficiency, and lysine availability in growing rats fed with lysine-biofortified rice

Rice is an excellent source of protein, and has an adequate balance of amino acids with the exception of the essential amino acid lysine. By using a combined enhancement of lysine synthesis and suppression of its catabolism, we had produced two transgenic rice lines HFL1 and HFL2 (High Free Lysine) containing high concentration of free lysine. In this study, a 70-day rat feeding study was conducted to assess the nutritional value of two transgenic lines as compared with either their wild type (WT) or the WT rice supplemented with different concentrations of L-lysine. The results revealed that animal performance, including body weight, food intake, and food efficiency, was greater in the HFL groups than in the WT group. Moreover, the HFL diets had increased protein apparent digestibility, protein efficiency ratio, and lysine availability than the WT diet. Based on the linear relationship between dietary L-lysine concentrations and animal performance, it indicated that the biological indexes of the HFL groups were similar or better than that of the WT20 group, which was supplemented with L-lysine concentrations similar to those present in the HFL diets. Therefore, lysine-biofortified rice contributed to improved growth performance, food efficiency, and lysine availability in growing rats.

Comparative performance of broilers fed diets containing DAS-44406-6 and non-transgenic soybean meal

Broiler chickens are fast growing monogastric animals considered a sensitive test species to evaluate the safety and nutritional equivalence between transgenic and non-transgenic grains as part of the human safety evaluation process. DAS-44406-6 soybean expresses three herbicide-tolerant proteins: the aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase-12 (AAD-12) enzyme which provides tolerance to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) herbicides, the double-mutant 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (2mEPSPS) enzyme encoded by a modified version of the epsps gene from maize (Zea mays), which provides tolerance to glyphosate herbicides, and the phosphinothricin acetyltransferase (PAT) enzyme from Streptomyces viridochromogenes, which provides tolerance to glufosinate herbicides. A 42-day broiler study was conducted with diets containing toasted DAS-44406-6 soybean meal to evaluate nutritional wholesomeness and safety compared with non-transgenic, near-isoline soybean and conventional comparators. The study used a randomized complete block design with five dietary treatments assigned randomly within six blocks of 12 pens per treatment, with 10 birds per pen. Broiler performance and carcass parameters were measured over a 6-week period of exposure to diets containing different sources of toasted soybean meal and hulls. Among the 13 endpoints measured, only thigh weight was numerically different between birds fed DAS-44406-6 soybean meal and those fed isoline soybean meal. However, no significant differences to thigh weight were observed between birds fed DAS-44406-6 soybean and any of the non-transgenic reference varieties. Results indicate that DAS-44406-6 soybeans are nutritionally equivalent to conventional varieties.

A 90-day toxicity study of GmTMT transgenic maize in Sprague-Dawley rats

GmTMT transgenic maize is a genetically modified maize plant that overexpresses the γ-tocopherol methyltransferase (γ-TMT) from Glycine max (Gm). The γ-TMT gene was introduced into maize line Zhen58 to encode the GmTMT2a protein which can convert γ-tocopherol into α-tocopherol. Overexpression of GmTMT2a significantly increased the α-tocopherol content in transgenic maize. The present study was designed to investigate any potential effects of GmTMT maize grain in a 90-day subchronic rodent feeding study. Maize grains from GmTMT or Zhen58 were incorporated into rodent diets at low (12.5%), medium (25%) or high (50%) concentrations and administered to Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 10/sex/group) for 90 days. The negative control group of rats (n = 10/sex/group) were fed with common maize diets. Results from body weights, feed consumption, clinical chemistry, hematology, absolute and relative organ weights indicated no treatment-related side effects of GmTMT maize grain on rats in comparison with rats consuming diets containing Zhen58 maize grain. In addition, no treatment-related changes were found in necropsy and histopathology examinations. Altogether, our data indicates that GmTMT transgenic maize is as safe and nutritious as its conventional non-transgenic maize.

Chitosan and β-Cyclodextrin-epichlorohydrin Polymer Composite Film as a Plant Healthcare Material for Carbendazim-Controlled Release to Protect Rape against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary

The influence of β-cyclodextrin-epichlorohydrin (β-CD-EP) polymers on the improvement of the solubility and antifungal activity of carbendazim has been investigated. Meanwhile, the potential of the chitosan and β-CD-EP composite film used as a plant healthcare material for carbendazim-controlled release to protect rape against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary has been evaluated. β-CD-EP-1 and 2 (β-CD content, 750 mg/g and 440 mg/g, respectively) were found to significantly improve the solubility of the guest molecule carbendazim (17.9 and 18.5 times, respectively) and the 1:1 stoichiometry of the host-guest was confirmed by the Job's plot. A slight synergism was observed for the β-CD-EP/carbendazim complex against S. sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary, indicating an enhancement to the bioavailability of carbendazim. The in vitro release studies revealed that β-CD-EP polymers could efficiently modulate carbendazim release behaviors, such as the release retard and rate. The in vivo efficacy experiments demonstrated that the β-CD-EP/carbendazim and chitosan composite film could significantly prolong the effective duration of carbendazim at a concentration of 100 μg/mL compared with spraying carbendazim at 500 μg/mL. Thereby, a highly useful and strategic concept in plant disease control by a plant healthcare material-the chitosan and polymeric β-CD-EP composite film-is provided, which could also serve as a concept for related plant diseases.

Adaptation of the ToxRTool to Assess the Reliability of Toxicology Studies Conducted with Genetically Modified Crops and Implications for Future Safety Testing

To determine the reliability of food safety studies carried out in rodents with genetically modified (GM) crops, a Food Safety Study Reliability Tool (FSSRTool) was adapted from the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods' (ECVAM) ToxRTool. Reliability was defined as the inherent quality of the study with regard to use of standardized testing methodology, full documentation of experimental procedures and results, and the plausibility of the findings. Codex guidelines for GM crop safety evaluations indicate toxicology studies are not needed when comparability of the GM crop to its conventional counterpart has been demonstrated. This guidance notwithstanding, animal feeding studies have routinely been conducted with GM crops, but their conclusions on safety are not always consistent. To accurately evaluate potential risks from GM crops, risk assessors need clearly interpretable results from reliable studies. The development of the FSSRTool, which provides the user with a means of assessing the reliability of a toxicology study to inform risk assessment, is discussed. Its application to the body of literature on GM crop food safety studies demonstrates that reliable studies report no toxicologically relevant differences between rodents fed GM crops or their non-GM comparators.

Long-term toxicity study on genetically modified corn with cry1Ac gene in a Wuzhishan miniature pig model

BACKGROUND

The objective of the present study was to investigate the chronic effect of transgenic maize lines by the insertion of the cry1Ac gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) on the growth performance, immune response and health using a Wuzhishan miniature pig model through a 196-day feeding study.

RESULTS

Based on the gender and weight, 72 Wuzhishan miniature pigs were randomly assigned one of the diets containing 65% non-transgenic isogenic corn or Bt corn at three stages of growth (day 0-69, 70-134 and 135-196). The potential toxicological effects of transgenic corn on pigs were explored. No difference between the diet treatments for growth performance and haematology parameters at any stages of growth. Although subtle differences in serum content of alanine aminotransferase, relative kidney weight and some immune response were observed between the Bt group and isogenic group, they were not considered as diet treatment-related.

CONCLUSION

Long-term feeding Bt corn carrying cry1Ac genes to Wuzhishan miniature pigs did not indicate adverse effects on the growth, immune response and health indicators at any stages of growth. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Subchronic Immunotoxicity Assessment of Genetically Modified Virus-Resistant Papaya in Rats

Papaya is an important fruit that provides a variety of vitamins with nutritional value and also holds some pharmacological properties, including immunomodulation. Genetically modified (GM) papaya plants resistant to Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) infection have been generated by cloning the coat protein gene of the PRSV which can be used as a valuable strategy to fight PRSV infection and to increase papaya production. In order to assess the safety of GM papaya as a food, this subchronic study was conducted to assess the immunomodulatory responses of the GM papaya line 823-2210, when compared with its parent plant of non-GM papaya, Tainung-2 (TN-2), in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Both non-GM and GM 823-2210 papaya fruits at low (1 g/kg bw) and high (2 g/kg bw) dosages were administered via daily oral gavage to male and female rats consecutively for 90 days. Immunophenotyping, mitogen-induced splenic cell proliferation, antigen-specific antibody response, and histopathology of the spleen and thymus were evaluated at the end of the experiment. Results of immunotoxicity assays revealed no consistent difference between rats fed for 90 days with GM 823-2210 papaya fruits, as opposed to those fed non-GM TN-2 papaya fruits, suggesting that with regard to immunomodulatory responses, GM 823-2210 papaya fruits maintain substantial equivalence to fruits of their non-GM TN-2 parent.

Health status and potential uptake of transgenic DNA by Japanese quail fed diets containing genetically modified plant ingredients over 10 generations

The hypothesis assumes that feed containing GMOs affects animal health and results in the transgene product accumulating in the body. Therefore, the objective of the study was to evaluate the impact of genetically modified (GM) ingredients used in poultry diets on aspects of bird health status and accumulation of transgenic DNA in eggs, breast muscle and internal organs. A total of 10 generations of Japanese quail were fed three types of diets: group A - containing GM soya (Roundup Ready) and non-GM maize, group B - containing GM maize (MON810) and non-GM soya, and group C - containing non-GM soya and maize. Bird performance traits were monitored throughout the trial. In 17-week-old animals of each generation, health examination took place on birds from each group including post-mortem necropsy and histological organ evaluation. For the purpose of transgenic DNA detection, samples of selected important tissues were taken. A molecular screening method of PCR amplification was used. The analysis of the sectional examination of birds used in the current experiment did not indicate the existence of the pathological changes caused by pathogens, nutritional factors or of environmental nature. The histopathological changes occurred in all three dietary groups and there were no statistically significant differences between the groups. There was no transgene amplification - neither CaMV35S promoter sequence nor nos terminator sequence, in the samples derived from breast muscle, selected tissues and germinal discs (eggs). According to the obtained results, it was concluded that there was no negative effect of the use of GM soya or maize with regard to bird health status or to the presence of transgenic DNA in the final consumable product.

Investigations of immunogenic, allergenic and adjuvant properties of Cry1Ab protein after intragastric exposure in a food allergy model in mice

Background

In genetically modified (GM) crops there is a risk that the inserted genes may introduce new allergens and/or adjuvants into the food and feed chain. The MON810 maize, expressing the insecticidal Cry1Ab toxin, is grown in many countries worldwide. In animal models, intranasal and intraperitoneal immunisations with the purified Cry1Ab proteins have induced immune responses, and feeding trials with Cry1Ab-containing feed have revealed some altered immune responses. Previous investigations have primarily measured antibody responses to the protein, while investigations of clinical food allergy symptoms, or allergy promotion (adjuvant effect) associated with the Cry1Ab protein are largely missing. We aimed to investigate immunogenic, allergenic and adjuvant properties of purified Cry1Ab toxin (trypCry1Ab, i.e., trypsin activated Cry1Ab) in a mouse model of food allergy.

Method

Female C3H/HeJ mice were immunized by intragastric gavage of 10 μg purified, trypsin activated Cry1Ab toxin (trypCry1Ab) alone or together with the food allergen lupin. Cholera toxin was added as a positive control for adjuvant effect to break oral tolerance. Clinical symptoms (anaphylaxis) as well as humoral and cellular responses were assessed.

Results

In contrast to results from previous airway investigations, we observed no indication of immunogenic properties of trypCry1Ab protein after repeated intragastric exposures to one dose, with or without CT as adjuvant. Moreover, the results indicated that trypCry1Ab given by the intragastric route was not able to promote allergic responses or anaphylactic reactions against the co-administered allergen lupin at the given dose.

Conclusion

The study suggests no immunogenic, allergenic or adjuvant capacity of the given dose of trypCry1Ab protein after intragastric exposure of prime aged mice.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12865-016-0148-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Recommendations from the workshop on Comparative Approaches to Safety Assessment of GM Plant Materials: A road toward harmonized criteria?

An international meeting of genetically modified (GM) food safety assessors from the main importing and exporting countries from Asia and the Americas was held in Buenos Aires, Argentina, between June 26^th and 28^th, 2013. Participants shared their evaluation approaches, identified similarities and challenges, and used their experience to propose areas for future work. Recommendations for improving risk assessment procedures and avenues for future collaboration were also discussed. The deliberations of the meeting were also supported by a survey of participants which canvassed risk assessment approaches across the regions from which participants came. This project was initiated by Argentine Agri-Food Health and Quality National Service (SENASA, Ministry of Agriculture, Argentina), with the support of the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) and other partner institutions. The importance of making all possible efforts toward more integrated and harmonized regulatory oversight for GM organisms (GMOs) was strongly emphasized. This exercise showed that such harmonization is a feasible goal that would contribute to sustain a fluid trade of commodities and ultimately enhance food security. Before this can be achieved, key issues identified in this meeting will have to be addressed in the near future to enable regulatory collaboration or joint work. The authors propose that the recommendations coming out of the meeting should be used as a basis for continuing work, follow up discussions and concrete actions.