Safety evaluation of steroidal saponin DT-13 isolated from the tuber of Liriope muscari (Decne.) Baily

Inhibition of Candida albicans Biofilm Formation and Attenuation of Its Virulence by Liriope muscari

(1) Background: Although Candida albicans accounts for the majority of fungal infections, therapeutic options are limited and require alternative antifungal agents with new targets; (2) Methods: A biofilm formation assay with RPMI1640 medium was performed with Liriope muscari extract. A combination antifungal assay, dimorphic transition assay, and adhesion assay were performed under the biofilm formation condition to determine the anti-biofilm formation effect. qRT-PCR analysis was accomplished to confirm changes in gene expression; (3) Results: L. muscari extract significantly reduces biofilm formation by 51.65% at 1.56 μg/mL use and therefore increases susceptibility to miconazole. L. muscari extract also inhibited the dimorphic transition of Candida; nearly 50% of the transition was inhibited when 1.56 μg/mL of the extract was treated. The extract of L. muscari inhibited the expression of genes related to hyphal development and extracellular matrix of 34.4% and 36.0%, respectively, as well as genes within the Ras1-cAMP-PKA, Cph2-Tec1, and MAP kinase signaling pathways of 25.58%, 7.1% and 15.8%, respectively, at 1.56 μg/mL of L. muscari extract treatment; (4) Conclusions: L. muscari extract significantly reduced Candida biofilm formation, which lead to induced antifungal susceptibility to miconazole. It suggests that L. muscari extract is a promising anti-biofilm candidate of Candida albicans since the biofilm formation of Candida albicans is an excellent target for candidiasis regulation.

Four new steroidal glycosides from Lilium lancifolium Thunb. and their antitumor activity

Four new steroidal glycosides (1-4), including two steroidal saponins named lililancifoloside B and C (1-2), one pregnane glycoside named lililancifoloside D (3), and one C22-steroidal lactone glycoside named lililancifoloside E (4), together with five known ones (5-9), were isolated from the bulbs of Lilium lancifolium Thunb. By using spectroscopic analysis, including 1D, 2D NMR, and HR-ESI-MS, the structures of 1-4 were elucidated. All isolates were tested for their cytotoxic potential against the MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, HepG2, and A549 cell lines. Compound 6 distinguished out among them, IC50 values of 3.31, 5.23, 1.78, and 1.49 μM against the four cell lines, respectively. Other compounds such as compound 3, 5, and 9 have also shown specific cytotoxic activity. Next, studies showed that compound 6 might cause HepG2 cells to undergo a cell cycle arrest during the G2/M phase and apoptosis.

Ophiopogon japonicus and its active compounds: A review of potential anticancer effects and underlying mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Ophiopogon japonicus (Thunb.) Ker Gawl., a well-known Chinese herb, has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for thousands of years. Extensive in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that O. japonicus and its active compounds exhibit potential anticancer effects in a variety of cancer cells in vitro and suppress tumor growth and metastasis without causing serious toxicity in vivo.

PURPOSE

This review aims to systemically summarize and discuss the anticancer effects and the underlying mechanisms of O. japonicus extracts and its active compounds.

METHODS

The review is prepared following the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. Various scientific databases including Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure were searched using the keywords: Ophiopogon japonicus, tumor, cancer, carcinoma, content, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity.

RESULTS

O. japonicus extracts and the active compounds, such as ruscogenin-1-O-[β-d-glucopyranosyl(1→2)][β-d-xylopyranosyl(1→3)]-β-d-fucopyranoside (DT-13), ophiopogonin B, and ophiopogonin D, exert potential anticancer effects, including the induction of cell cycle arrest, activation of apoptosis and autophagy, and inhibition of metastasis and angiogenesis. In addition, the mechanisms underlying these effects, as well as the pharmacokinetics, toxicity and clinical utility of O. japonicus extracts and active compounds are discussed. Furthermore, this review highlights the research and application prospects of these compounds in immunotherapy and combination chemotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The traditional herb O. japonicus and its phytochemicals could be safe and reliable anticancer drug candidates, alone or in combination with chemotherapeutic drugs. We hope that this review, which highlights the anticancer properties of O. japonicus, will contribute to drug optimization, therapeutic development, and future studies on cancer therapies based on this medicinal plant.

Safety assessment of marigold flavonoids from marigold inflorescence residue

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Marigold flavonoids, extracted from marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) inflorescence residues, have attracted significant attention with respect to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and chelating properties. However, the toxicity of marigold flavonoids have not yet been fully investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The main purpose of this study was to assess the safety of marigold flavonoids extracted from Marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) in order to provide information on its nonclinical safety. Thus, the acute oral toxicity, in vitro Ames test, sperm aberration study, bone marrow micronucleus test, subchronic oral toxicity test, and teratogenic potential were carried out in rats or mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For an acute oral toxicity test, SD rats and ICR mice (male and female, n = 5) orally received a single dose of 5000 mg/kg marigold flavonoids. Evaluation of marigold flavonoids genotoxic potential with a battery of tests, including an in vitro bacterial reverse mutation test using four mutant strains of Salmonella typhimurium (TA₉₇、TA₉₈、TA₁₀₀、TA₁₀₂), an sperm aberration test and an in vivo micronucleus test using bone marrow cells ICR mice that were orally administered marigold flavonoids, an subchronic oral toxicity study and teratogenic test employing male and female SD rats that were orally administered marigold flavonoids. All animals tests were completed in accordance with GB 15193 for toxicity tests.

RESULTS

In the acute oral toxicity test, marigold flavonoids given at the dose of 5000 mg/kg body weight for 14 days didn't produce any abnormal clinical symptoms or mortality in SD rats and ICR mice (both sex, n = 5). There was no evidence of genotoxicity of marigold flavonoids based on the results of the in vitro bacterial reverse mutation test (up to 1250 μg/plate), the sperm aberration test (up to 5000 mg/kg body weight), the in vivo micronucleus test (up to 5000 mg/kg body weight), the subchronic oral toxicity study (up to 10 g/kg feed dose) and the teratogenic test (up to 1250 mg/kg body weight).

CONCLUSIONS

We found that marigold flavonoids are safe with regard to acute toxicity in rats or mice as well as genotoxicity such as mutagenesis or clastogenesis under the present experimental conditions. These results might support the safety of marigold flavonoids as a potential therapeutic material for the traditional use of herbal medicines and for the further development of novel antioxidant.

Botanical from the Fruits Mesocarp of Raphia vinifera Displays Antiproliferative Activity and Is Harmless as Evidenced by Toxicological Assessments

Raphia vinifera is widely used to treat several diseases including digestive disorders, dysentery, and genitourinary infections. In this study, the mineral contents, the cytotoxicity, and the toxicological effect of the crude CHCl3/MeOH extract (RVM) from the mesocarp of Raphia vinifera were evaluated. The mineral contents were evaluated using the method described by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). The cytotoxicity of both extract and chemical compounds from the plants was determined by a resazurin reduction assay (RRA). The toxicological studies were carried out using the experimental procedure of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). After killing the rats, biochemical, histopathological, and hematological studies were performed. The result indicated that RVM is rich in zinc (6.52 mg/100 g of DM) and sodium (194.5 mg/100 g of DM). RVM had a cytotoxicity effect with IC50 values lower than 30 μg/mL in 18/18 cancer cell lines tested. These recorded IC50 values were between 12.35 µg/mL (toward CCRF-CEM leukemia cells) and 26.66 µg/mL (toward SKMel-505 BRAF wild-type melanoma cells). Raphvinin 4 displayed good cytotoxicity against MaMel-80aBRAF-V600E homozygous mutant with the IC50 of 10.42 μM. RVM was relatively nontoxic to rats, the median lethal dose (DL50) being above 5000 mg/kg body weight. However, during the oral administration period extending for 28 days, precautions should be taken due to the increase in urinary creatinine level and decrease in spleen weight in the male rats given the highest dose (1000 mg/kg) of extract. Conclusively, the extract of Raphia vinifera is weakly toxic in rats and could be further used in the development of anticancer phytomedicines.

Anti-inflammatory and modulatory effects of steroidal saponins and sapogenins on cytokines: A review of pre-clinical research

BACKGROUND

Saponins are glycosides which, after acid hydrolysis, liberate sugar(s) and an aglycone (sapogenin) which can be triterpenoid or steroidal in nature. Steroidal saponins and sapogenins have attracted significant attention as important natural anti-inflammatory compounds capable of acting on the activity of several inflammatory cytokines in various inflammatory models.

PURPOSE

The aim of this review is to collect preclinical in vivo studies on the anti-inflammatory activity of steroidal saponins through the modulation of inflammatory cytokines.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

This review was carried out through a specialized search in three databases, that were accessed between September and October, 2021, and the publication period of the articles was not limited. Information about the name of the steroidal saponins, the animals used, the dose and route of administration, the model of pain or inflammation used, the tissue and experimental method used in the measurement of the cytokines, and the results observed on the levels of cytokines was retrieved.

RESULTS

Forty-five (45) articles met the inclusion criteria, involving the saponins cantalasaponin-1, α-chaconine, dioscin, DT-13, lycoperoside H, protodioscin, α-solanine, timosaponin AIII and BII, trillin, and the sapogenins diosgenin, hecogenin, and ruscogenin. The surveys were carried out in seven different countries and only articles between 2007 and 2021 were found. The studies included in the review showed that the saponins and sapogenins were anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive and antioxidant and they modulate inflammatory cytokines mainly through the Nf-κB, TLR4 and MAPKs pathways.

CONCLUSION

Steroidal saponins and sapogenins are promising compounds in handling of pain and inflammation for the development of natural product-derived drugs. However, it is necessary to increase the methodological quality of preclinical studies, mainly blinding and sample size calculation.

In vivo acute toxicity and mutagenic analysis of crude saponins from Chenopodium quinoa Willd husks

Background: As a functional food factor, quinoa saponins are valuable as additives and in medical care, pharmaceutical development, cosmetics and other fields. However, few studies have investigated the toxicity of saponins. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the toxicity of crude saponins extracted from quinoa husks. Thus, acute toxicity and excretion experiments were carried out in rats. The Ames test, micronucleus test and mouse sperm aberration test were carried out in mice. Results: In the acute toxicity study, the obtained LD₅₀ was more than 10 g per kg per bw for both sexes, the food intake of all rats decreased over a period of time, and some rats developed diarrhea. In the case of large-dose gavage, the saponin excretion time in rats was approximately four days. When the dosage was 10 mg kg⁻¹, quinoa saponins were hydrolyzed into aglycone within 24 hours and excreted out of the body. The results of the mutagenicity experiment showed that saponins had no mutagenicity in mice. Conclusion: This work has demonstrated that quinoa saponins have limited acute toxicity effects, which provides a theoretical basis for their rational utilization.

As a functional food factor, quinoa saponins are valuable as additives and in medical care, pharmaceutical development, cosmetics and other fields.

DT-13 induced apoptosis and promoted differentiation of acute myeloid leukemia cells by activating AMPK-KLF2 pathway

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a malignant disease originating from hematopoietic stem cells (HSC). Chemotherapy and/or HSC transplantation is unsatisfactory due to serious side effects, multidrug resistance, and high relapse rate. Thus, alternative strategies are urgently needed to develop more effective therapies. Liriope muscari baily saponins C (DT-13) is a novel compound isolated from Liriope muscari (Decne.) Baily, and exhibited a potent cytotoxicity against several solid tumors. However, the anti-AML activity of DT-13 and the potential mechanisms are still unknown. This study is the first to demonstrate that DT-13 had preferential cytotoxicity against AML cells, and remarkably inhibited proliferation and colony forming ability. Moreover, DT-13 induced the death receptor pathway-dependent apoptosis of HL-60 and Kasumi-1 cells by up-regulating Fas, FasL, DR5 and TRAIL as well as promoted the cleavage of caspase 8, caspase 3 and PARP. Meanwhile, DT-13 induced the differentiation with morphological change related to myeloid differentiation, elevated NBT and α-NAE positive cell rates, differentiation markers CD11b and CD14 as well as level of transcription factors C/EBPα and C/EBPβ. RNA-sequencing analysis revealed that KLF2 may be one of the potential targets regulated by DT-13. Further studies indicated that KLF2 played a critical role in DT-13-induced apoptosis and differentiation. Moreover, activation of AMPK-FOXO was proved to be the upstream of KLF2 pathway that contributed to the induction of apoptosis and differentiation by DT-13. Additionally, restoration of KLF2 by DT-13 was highly correlated with the AMPK-related histone acetylation mechanisms. Finally, DT-13 exhibited an obvious anti-AML effect in NOD/SCID mice with the engraftment of HL-60 cells. Our study suggests that DT-13 may serve as a novel agent for AML by AMPL-KLF2-mediated apoptosis and differentiation.

Advances in the antitumor activities and mechanisms of action of steroidal saponins

The steroidal saponins are one of the saponin types that exist in an unbound state and have various pharmacological activities, such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial and nerves-calming properties. Cancer is a growing health problem worldwide. Significant progress has been made to understand the antitumor effects of steroidal saponins in recent years. According to reported findings, steroidal saponins exert various antitumor activities, such as inhibiting proliferation, inducing apoptosis and autophagy, and regulating the tumor microenvironment, through multiple related signaling pathways. This article focuses on the advances in domestic and foreign studies on the antitumor activity and mechanism of actions of steroidal saponins in the last five years to provide a scientific basis and research ideas for further development and clinical application of steroidal saponins.

Recent advances in steroidal saponins biosynthesis and in vitro production

Steroidal saponins exhibited numerous pharmacological activities due to the modification of their backbone by different cytochrome P450s (P450) and UDP glycosyltransferases (UGTs). Plant-derived steroidal saponins are not sufficient for utilizing them for commercial purpose so in vitro production of saponin by tissue culture, root culture, embryo culture, etc, is necessary for its large-scale production. Saponin glycosides are the important class of plant secondary metabolites, which consists of either steroidal or terpenoidal backbone. Due to the existence of a wide range of medicinal properties, saponin glycosides are pharmacologically very important. This review is focused on important medicinal properties of steroidal saponin, its occurrence, and biosynthesis. In addition to this, some recently identified plants containing steroidal saponins in different parts were summarized. The high throughput transcriptome sequencing approach elaborates our understanding related to the secondary metabolic pathway and its regulation even in the absence of adequate genomic information of non-model plants. The aim of this review is to encapsulate the information related to applications of steroidal saponin and its biosynthetic enzymes specially P450s and UGTs that are involved at later stage modifications of saponin backbone. Lastly, we discussed the in vitro production of steroidal saponin as the plant-based production of saponin is time-consuming and yield a limited amount of saponins. A large amount of plant material has been used to increase the production of steroidal saponin by employing in vitro culture technique, which has received a lot of attention in past two decades and provides a way to conserve medicinal plants as well as to escape them for being endangered.

DT-13 synergistically potentiates the sensitivity of gastric cancer cells to topotecan via cell cycle arrest in vitro and in vivo

Natural medicine has multi-levels, multi-paths and multi-targets, and an increasing number of reports have confirmed that the combination of natural medicine with chemotherapy drugs exhibit a significant synergistic effect. It is necessary to find drug combination strategies to enhance efficacy and reduce toxicity, which can relieve the restrictions on the use of several chemotherapy drugs that have serious toxicity. Our previous reports showed that DT-13 inhibits cancer proliferation, invasion, migration, metastasis, and angiogenesis and induces autophagy. In this study, we evaluated the anti-proliferation effect of DT-13 on a panel of 40 different cancer cell lines for the first time. Moreover, it is also the first time that the combination of DT-13 with 5 different chemotherapy drugs on 3 common cancer cells has been examined. We further confirmed that DT-13 enhanced the sensitivity of gastric cancer cells to topotecan (TPT) via cell cycle arrest in vitro and in vivo. Considering that TPT has been subjected to restriction because of its serious toxicity, DT-13 showed the ability to enhance its effect and reduce its toxicity, which could provide a strategy to reduce the toxic and clinical side effects of TPT.

The saponin D39 blocks dissociation of non-muscular myosin heavy chain IIA from TNF receptor 2, suppressing tissue factor expression and venous thrombosis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Non-muscular myosin heavy chain IIA (NMMHC IIA) plays a key role in tissue factor expression and venous thrombosis. Natural products might inhibit thrombosis through effects on NMMHC IIA. Here, we have shown that a natural saponin, D39, from Liriope muscari exerted anti-thrombotic activity in vivo, by targeting NMMHC IIA.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Expression and activity of tissue factor in endothelial cells were analysed in vitro by Western blot and simplified chromogenic assays. Interactions between D39 and NMMHC IIA were assessed by serial affinity chromatography and molecular docking analysis. D39-dependent interactions between NMMHC IIA and TNF receptor 2 (TNFR2) were measured by immunofluorescence, co-immunoprecipitation and proximity ligation assays. Anti-thrombotic activity of D39 in vivo was evaluated with a model of inferior vena cava ligation injury in mice.

KEY RESULTS

D39 inhibited tissue factor expression and procoagulant activities in HUVECs and decreased thrombus weight in inferior vena cava-ligated mice dose-dependently. Serial affinity chromatography and molecular docking analysis suggested that D39 bound to NMMHC IIA. In HEK293T cells, D39 inhibited tissue factor expression evoked by NMMHC IIA overexpression. This effect was blocked by NMMHC IIA knockdown in HUVECs. D39 inhibited dissociation of NMMHC IIA from TNFR2, which subsequently modulated the Akt/GSK3β-NF-κB signalling pathways.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

D39 inhibited tissue factor expression and thrombus formation by modulating the Akt/GSK3β and NF-κB signalling pathways through NMMHC IIA. We identified a new natural product that targeted NMMHC IIA, as a potential treatment for thrombotic disorders and other vasculopathies.

DT-13 synergistically enhanced vinorelbine-mediated mitotic arrest through inhibition of FOXM1-BICD2 axis in non-small-cell lung cancer cells

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most commonly diagnosed malignant disease with the leading cause of cancer-related death. Combination treatment remains the major strategy in the clinical therapy of NSCLC. Vinorelbine (NVB), a semi-synthetic vinca alkaloid, is used for advanced and metastatic NSCLC by destabilizing microtubule formation to induce mitotic arrest and cell death. However, the side effect of NVB heavily affected its effectiveness in clinical therapy. Hence, it is of great significance to develop new agents to synergize with NVB and decrease the adverse effect. In our study, we found that the saponin monomer 13 of the dwarf lilyturf tuber, DT-13, exhibiting anti-angiogenesis and anti-metastasis effect, synergized with NVB to inhibit cell proliferation in NSCLC cells. The synergistic interaction of DT-13 and NVB was confirmed by combination Index values. Also, DT-13 and NVB act in concert to inhibit the long-term colony formation. Furthermore, DT-13/NVB co-treatment cooperated to induce mitotic arrest and subsequent apoptosis. Mechanistically, we found that nuclear expression of transcription factors forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) and levels of motor adaptor bicaudal D2 (BICD2) were dramatically reduced by combination treatment. Importantly, oncogene FOXM1 was identified as the crucial regulator of BICD2, which played critical roles in NVB-induced mitotic spindle defects. Moreover, overexpression of FOXM1 and BICD2 significantly reversed mitotic arrest induced by DT-13/NVB co-treatment, and siRNAs against both genes greatly increased the combinational effects. In addition, in vivo study revealed that DT-13 combined with NVB significantly suppressed tumor growth in nude mice xenograft model, and downregulated the expression of FOXM1 and BICD2 in tumor tissues, which was consistent with in vitro study. In conclusion, DT-13 might provide a novel strategy for the chemosensitization of NVB in NSCLC therapy.

Novel cytotoxic steroidal saponins from the roots of Liriope muscari (Decne.) L.H. Bailey

Novel steroidal saponins from the roots of Liriope muscari (Decne.) L. H. Bailey with cytotoxic activities.

Ophiopogon japonicus--A phytochemical, ethnomedicinal and pharmacological review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ophiopogonis Radix (Maidong in Chinese), the root of Ophiopogon japonicus, is widely used in local medicines of China, Japan and some south-eastern Asian countries. According to the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) principle, Ophiopogonis Radix nourishes the yin, promotes body fluid production, moistens the lung, eases the mind and clears away heart fire. This review summarizes the achievements of the investigations in botany, phytochemistry, quality control, traditional uses, pharmacological activities and clinical studies on O. japonicus; this review also describes the shortcomings of studies on this herbal drug and thus serves as the basis of further scientific research and development of this traditional herbal drug.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

O. japonicus-related information was collected from various resources, including books on Chinese herbs and the Internet databases, such as Google Scholar, SciFinder, Web of Science, Elsevier, ACS, PubMed and China Knowledge Resource Integrated (CNKI).

RESULTS

O. japonicus is widely distributed in East Asia, especially in China. Numerous compounds were identified from this plant. The main components of O. japonicus include steroidal saponins, homoisoflavonoids and polysaccharides, which exhibited various pharmacological activities, such as cardiovascular protection, anti-inflammation, anticancer, anti-oxidation, immunomodulation, cough relief, antimicrobial, and anti-diabetes.

CONCLUSIONS

O. japonicus is a common traditional Chinese herbal drug used as the main ingredient in many prescriptions. Modern researches verified that O. japonicus can be used either as a healthy food or a therapeutic agent for disease prevention and treatment. The molecular mechanisms and chemical principles of this herbal medicine should be further explored.

Novel cytotoxic steroidal glycosides from the roots of Liriope muscari

The present study was designed to investigate the chemical constituents and bioactivities of the roots of Liriope muscari (Decne.) L.H. Bailey. The compounds were isolated through various chromatography techniques, including silica gel, Sephadex LH-20, and semi-preparative HPLC. The structures were elucidated by infrared (IR), mass spectrometric (MS), 1D- and 2D-NMR analyses in comparison with reference data. In addition, the cytotoxicity of these compounds against human breast cancer MDA-MB-435 cells was evaluated by the MTT assay. Two new steroidal glycosides, 25(R, S)-ruscogenin-1-O-[β-D-fucopyranosyl (1→2)]-[β-D-xylopyranosyl(1→3)]β-D-glucopyranoside (Liriopem I, 1) and 25(R, S)- ruscogenin-1-O-[β-D-fucopyranosyl (1→2)]-[β-D-xylopyranosyl(1→4)]-β-D-fucopyranoside (Liriopem II, 2 and two known compounds LM-S6 (3) and DT-13 (4) were isolated and identified. Liriopem I(1), liriopem II(2) and DT-13 (4) showed remarkable cytotoxicity with IC50 values being (0.58 ± 0.08), (0.05 ± 0.10), and (0.15 ± 0.09) μg·mL(-1), respectively. In summary, compounds 1 and 2 identified in the present study exerted cytotoxicity against breast cancer cells, providing a basis for future development of these compounds as novel anticancer agents.

The saponin DT-13 attenuates tumor necrosis factor-α-induced vascular inflammation associated with Src/NF-кB/MAPK pathway modulation

This study aimed to explore the effect of DT-13 (25(R,S)-ruscogenin- 1-O- [β-d-glucopyranosyl- (1→2)][β-d-xylopyranosyl-(1→3)]-β -d- fucopyranoside) on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-induced vascular inflammation and the potential molecular mechanisms. In vitro, DT-13 suppressed TNF-α-induced adhesion and migration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) by inhibiting the expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1). DT-13 markedly suppressed NF-кB p65 phosphorylation, and when NF-кB p65 was over-expressed, the inhibitory effect of DT-13 on adhesion molecular decreased. DT-13 also suppressed TNF-α induced luciferase activities of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 promoter containing NF-κB binding sites. Furthermore, DT-13 markedly suppressed p38 phosphorylation and Src degradation induced by TNF-α, whereas had no significant effect on ERK and JNK activation. In vivo, DT-13 at 4 mg/kg prevented vascular inflammation and the expression of adhesion molecules induced by TNF-α in mice. These findings suggest that DT-13 abrogates vascular inflammation by down-regulating adhesion molecules associated with modulating the NF-кB, p38MAPK, Src signaling pathways, and NF-κB binding site is at least one of the targets of DT-13. This study provides novel information regarding the mechanism by which DT-13 exerts its effects on vascular inflammation, which is important for the onset and progression of various diseases.

Intravenous injection of saeng maek san - a safe method of treatment in rats

Objectives:

This study evaluated the single-dose toxicity of Saeng Maek San (SMS) in rats.

Methods:

All experiments were conducted at Biotoxtech (Chungwon, Korea), an institute authorized to perform non-clinical studies under the regulations of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP). A single-dose intravenous toxicity study was carried out on 40 6-week-old Sprague-Daley rats. The animals were randomly divided into the following four groups of ten animals each: Group 1 (G1) was the control group, with each animal receiving an intravenous injection of 1.0 mL of saline, and Groups 2, 3 and 4 (G2, G3 and G4) were the experimental groups, with the animals in the groups receiving an injection of 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 mL of SMS, respectively. Mortality, clinical signs, body-weight changes and gross pathological findings were observed for 14 days following a single administration of SMS or saline. Organ weights, clinical chemistry and hematology were analyzed at 14 days. This study was conducted with the approval of the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee.

Results:

No deaths occurred in any of the four groups,indicating that the lethal dose of SMS in rats is greater than 1.0 mL/animal. Some changes in weights of male rats between the control group and the experimental groups were observed, but no significant changes in the weights of female rats were noted. To identify abnormalities in organs and tissues, we stained representative sections of each specified organ with hematoxylin and eosin for examination with a light microscope. No significant abnormalities were observed in any of the organs or tissues.

Conclusion:

The results suggest that intravenous injection of SMS is a safe method of treatment.

A combination of four active compounds alleviates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in correlation with inhibition of autophagy and modulation of AMPK/mTOR and JNK pathways

SMXZF is a combination of Rb1, Rg1, schizandrin, and DT-13 (6:9:5:4) derived from Sheng-mai San, a widely used Chinese traditional medicine for the treatment of cardiovascular and cerebral diseases. The present study explores the inhibitory effects and signaling pathways of SMXZF on autophagy induced by cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Male C57BL/6 mice were subjected to ischemia-reperfusion insult by right middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 1 hr with subsequent 24 hr reperfusion. Three doses of SMXZF (4.5, 9, and 18 mg/kg) were administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) after ischemia for 1 hr. An autophagic inhibitor, 3-methyladenine (3-MA; 300 μg/kg), was administered i.p. 20 min before ischemia as a positive drug. We found that SMXZF significantly increased cerebral blood flow and reduced the infarct volume, brain water content, and the neurological deficits in a dose-dependent manner. Similar to the positive control, SMXZF at 18 mg/kg also significantly inhibited autophagosome formation. Immunofluorescence staining and Western blotting demonstrated that SMXZF could significantly decrease the expression levels of beclin1 and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3. SMXZF also remarkably inhibited the phosphorylation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) as well as the expression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and its phosphorylation induced by 24 hr reperfusion. Finally, we demonstrated that the optimal administration time of SMXZF was at the early period of reperfusion. This study reveals that SMXZF displays neuroprotective effect against focal ischemia-reperfusion injury, possibly associated with autophagy inactivation through AMPK/mTOR and JNK pathways.