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Cao L, Miao Y, Liu Y, Huang S, Tian L, Yu M, Huo J, Zhang L, Li X, Chen J. Genotoxic mode of action and threshold exploration of 2-methyl furan under 120-day sub-chronic exposure in male Sprague-Dawley rats. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 273:116125. [PMID: 38394755 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
2-Methylfuran (2-MF) is an important member of the furan family generated during food thermal processing. An in-vivo multiple endpoint genotoxicity assessment system was applied to explore the genotoxic mode of action and threshold of 2-MF. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received 2-MF by oral gavage at doses of 0.16, 0.625, 2.5, and 10 mg/kg.bw/day for 120 days. An additional 15 days were granted for recovery. The Pig-a gene mutation frequency of RET and RBC showed significant increases among the 2-MF groups on day 120. After a 15-day recovery period, the Pig-a gene mutation frequency returned to levels similar to those in the vehicle control. The tail intensity (TI) values of peripheral blood cells at a dose of 10 mg/kg.bw/day significantly increased from day 4 and remained at a high level after the recovery period. No statistical difference was found in the micronucleus frequency of peripheral blood between any 2-MF dose group and the corn oil group at any timepoint. 2-MF may not induce the production of micronuclei, but it could cause DNA breakage. It could not be ruled out that 2-MF may accumulate in vivo and cause gene mutations. Hence, DNA, other than the spindle, may be directly targeted. The mode of action of 2-MF may be that it was metabolized by EPHX1 to more DNA-active metabolites, thus leading to oxidative and direct DNA damage. The point of departure (PoD) of 2-MF-induced genotoxicity was derived as 0.506 mg/kg bw/day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Cao
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, West China School of Public Health/West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Yeqiu Miao
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, West China School of Public Health/West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Yufei Liu
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, West China School of Public Health/West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Shuzhen Huang
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, West China School of Public Health/West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Luojia Tian
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, West China School of Public Health/West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Mengqi Yu
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, West China School of Public Health/West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Jiao Huo
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, Chongqing Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Lishi Zhang
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, West China School of Public Health/West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Xiaomeng Li
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, West China School of Public Health/West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China.
| | - Jinyao Chen
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, West China School of Public Health/West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China.
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Tang X, Miao Y, Cao L, Liu Y, Zhu X, Zhang J, Wang D, Li X, Zhang L, Huo J, Chen J. Adverse outcome pathway exploration of furan-induced liver fibrosis in rats: Genotoxicity pathway or oxidative stress pathway through CYP2E1 activation? CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 341:139998. [PMID: 37657698 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
Furan is a widespread endogenous contaminant in heat-processed foods that can accumulate rapidly in the food chain and has been widely detected in foods, such as wheat, bread, coffee, canned meat products, and baby food. Dietary exposure to this chemical may bring health risk. Furan is classified as a possible category 2B human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, with the liver as its primary target organ. Hepatic fibrosis is the most important nontumoral harmful effect of furan and also an important event in the carcinogenesis of furan. Although the specific mechanism of furan-induced liver fibrosis is still unclear, it may involve oxidative stress and genetic toxicity, in which the activation of cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) may be the key event. Thus, we conducted a study using an integrating multi-endpoint genotoxicity platform in 120-day in vivo subchronic toxicity test in rats. Results showed that the rats with activated CYP2E1 exhibited DNA double-strand breaks in D4, gene mutations in D60, and increased expression of reactive oxygen species and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 in D120. Necrosis, apoptosis, hepatic stellate cell activation, and fibrosis also occurred in the liver, suggesting that furan can independently affect liver fibrosis through oxidative stress and genotoxicity pathways. Point of Departure (PoD) was obtained by benchmark-dose (BMD) method to establish health-based guidance values. The human equivalent dose of PoD derived from BMDL05 was 2.26 μg/kg bw/d. The findings laid a foundation for the safety evaluation and risk assessment of furan and provided data for the further construction and improvement of the adverse outcome pathway network in liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyao Tang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yeqiu Miao
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Li Cao
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yufei Liu
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xia Zhu
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Dongxia Wang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xiaomeng Li
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Lishi Zhang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jiao Huo
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, Chongqing Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chongqing, China.
| | - Jinyao Chen
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China; Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
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A novel approach to the synthesis of substituted ribose and furan derivatives: biological activity of dimethyl 3,4-dihydroxytetrahydrofuran-2,5-dicarboxylate. MONATSHEFTE FUR CHEMIE 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00706-022-02989-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Kobets T, Smith BPC, Williams GM. Food-Borne Chemical Carcinogens and the Evidence for Human Cancer Risk. Foods 2022; 11:foods11182828. [PMID: 36140952 PMCID: PMC9497933 DOI: 10.3390/foods11182828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Commonly consumed foods and beverages can contain chemicals with reported carcinogenic activity in rodent models. Moreover, exposures to some of these substances have been associated with increased cancer risks in humans. Food-borne carcinogens span a range of chemical classes and can arise from natural or anthropogenic sources, as well as form endogenously. Important considerations include the mechanism(s) of action (MoA), their relevance to human biology, and the level of exposure in diet. The MoAs of carcinogens have been classified as either DNA-reactive (genotoxic), involving covalent reaction with nuclear DNA, or epigenetic, involving molecular and cellular effects other than DNA reactivity. Carcinogens are generally present in food at low levels, resulting in low daily intakes, although there are some exceptions. Carcinogens of the DNA-reactive type produce effects at lower dosages than epigenetic carcinogens. Several food-related DNA-reactive carcinogens, including aflatoxins, aristolochic acid, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene and ethylene oxide, are recognized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as causes of human cancer. Of the epigenetic type, the only carcinogen considered to be associated with increased cancer in humans, although not from low-level food exposure, is dioxin (TCDD). Thus, DNA-reactive carcinogens in food represent a much greater risk than epigenetic carcinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetyana Kobets
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-914-594-3105; Fax: +1-914-594-4163
| | - Benjamin P. C. Smith
- Future Ready Food Safety Hub, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Gary M. Williams
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
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Gajski G, Žegura B, Ladeira C, Novak M, Sramkova M, Pourrut B, Del Bo' C, Milić M, Gutzkow KB, Costa S, Dusinska M, Brunborg G, Collins A. The comet assay in animal models: From bugs to whales - (Part 2 Vertebrates). MUTATION RESEARCH-REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2019; 781:130-164. [PMID: 31416573 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The comet assay has become one of the methods of choice for the evaluation and measurement of DNA damage. It is sensitive, quick to perform and relatively affordable for the evaluation of DNA damage and repair at the level of individual cells. The comet assay can be applied to virtually any cell type derived from different organs and tissues. Even though the comet assay is predominantly used on human cells, the application of the assay for the evaluation of DNA damage in yeast, plant and animal cells is also quite high, especially in terms of biomonitoring. The present extensive overview on the usage of the comet assay in animal models will cover both terrestrial and water environments. The first part of the review was focused on studies describing the comet assay applied in invertebrates. The second part of the review, (Part 2) will discuss the application of the comet assay in vertebrates covering cyclostomata, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, in addition to chordates that are regarded as a transitional form towards vertebrates. Besides numerous vertebrate species, the assay is also performed on a range of cells, which includes blood, liver, kidney, brain, gill, bone marrow and sperm cells. These cells are readily used for the evaluation of a wide spectrum of genotoxic agents both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, the use of vertebrate models and their role in environmental biomonitoring will also be discussed as well as the comparison of the use of the comet assay in vertebrate and human models in line with ethical principles. Although the comet assay in vertebrates is most commonly used in laboratory animals such as mice, rats and lately zebrafish, this paper will only briefly review its use regarding laboratory animal models and rather give special emphasis to the increasing usage of the assay in domestic and wildlife animals as well as in various ecotoxicological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goran Gajski
- Mutagenesis Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - Bojana Žegura
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Carina Ladeira
- H&TRC - Health & Technology Research Center, Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal; Centro de Investigação e Estudos em Saúde de Publica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Matjaž Novak
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Monika Sramkova
- Biomedical Research Center, Cancer Research Institute, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Bertrand Pourrut
- EcoLab, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Cristian Del Bo'
- DeFENS-Division of Human Nutrition, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Mirta Milić
- Mutagenesis Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Solange Costa
- Environmental Health Department, National Health Institute Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Porto, Portugal; EPIUnit - Instituto de Saúde Pública, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria Dusinska
- Health Effects Laboratory, Department of Environmental Chemistry-MILK, NILU - Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Kjeller, Norway
| | - Gunnar Brunborg
- Department of Molecular Biology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Andrew Collins
- Department of Nutrition, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Awad A, Khalil SR, Farag MR, Nassan MA. Differential susceptibility of kidneys and livers to proliferative processes and transcriptional level of the genes encoding desmin, vimentin, connexin 43, and nestin in rats exposed to furan. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2018; 162:235-244. [PMID: 29990736 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to assess the differential toxic impact, induced by furan exposure, on the liver and kidney tissues by estimating reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), oxidative damage, and the tissue injury markers in a male rat model. To explain such impacts, 20 rats were assigned into two groups: a control group, where rats were administered corn oil as a vehicle, and a furan-administered group, where furan was orally administered to rats at a dose of 16 mg/kg b wt/day (five days per week over eight weeks). The transcriptional levels of intermediate filament proteins (desmin, vimentin, nestin, and connexin 43) were assessed by using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and the cell proliferation markers (proliferating cell nuclear antigen [PCNA] and proliferation-associated nuclear antigen [Ki-67]) were recognized by immunohistochemical analysis. Furthermore, the ultrastructural changes of liver and kidney were monitored using electron microscopy. Our findings showed that furan exposure could induce hepatic and renal damage to different extents. Furan can increase the ROS content, oxidative damage indices, and liver tissue injury indices but not kidney injury indices. Furthermore, it decreases the TAC in the serum of exposed rats. In addition, furan exposure was associated with changes in the mRNA expression pattern of intermediate filament proteins in both kidney and liver tissues. Moreover, furan enhances the expression of PCNA and Ki-67 in the liver tissues but not in the kidney tissues. The ultrastructure evaluation revealed the incidence of glomerular podocyte degeneration and hepatocyte injury. These results conclusively demonstrate that the deleterious effects of furan are caused by promoting fibrosis and hepatocyte proliferation in liver tissues and triggering podocyte injury in the kidney tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashraf Awad
- Animal Wealth Development Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Samah R Khalil
- Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, 44511 Zagazig, Egypt.
| | - Mayada Ragab Farag
- Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, 44511 Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Abdo Nassan
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
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7
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Rietjens IMCM, Dussort P, Günther H, Hanlon P, Honda H, Mally A, O'Hagan S, Scholz G, Seidel A, Swenberg J, Teeguarden J, Eisenbrand G. Exposure assessment of process-related contaminants in food by biomarker monitoring. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:15-40. [PMID: 29302712 PMCID: PMC5773647 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-2143-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Exposure assessment is a fundamental part of the risk assessment paradigm, but can often present a number of challenges and uncertainties. This is especially the case for process contaminants formed during the processing, e.g. heating of food, since they are in part highly reactive and/or volatile, thus making exposure assessment by analysing contents in food unreliable. New approaches are therefore required to accurately assess consumer exposure and thus better inform the risk assessment. Such novel approaches may include the use of biomarkers, physiologically based kinetic (PBK) modelling-facilitated reverse dosimetry, and/or duplicate diet studies. This review focuses on the state of the art with respect to the use of biomarkers of exposure for the process contaminants acrylamide, 3-MCPD esters, glycidyl esters, furan and acrolein. From the overview presented, it becomes clear that the field of assessing human exposure to process-related contaminants in food by biomarker monitoring is promising and strongly developing. The current state of the art as well as the existing data gaps and challenges for the future were defined. They include (1) using PBK modelling and duplicate diet studies to establish, preferably in humans, correlations between external exposure and biomarkers; (2) elucidation of the possible endogenous formation of the process-related contaminants and the resulting biomarker levels; (3) the influence of inter-individual variations and how to include that in the biomarker-based exposure predictions; (4) the correction for confounding factors; (5) the value of the different biomarkers in relation to exposure scenario's and risk assessment, and (6) the possibilities of novel methodologies. In spite of these challenges it can be concluded that biomarker-based exposure assessment provides a unique opportunity to more accurately assess consumer exposure to process-related contaminants in food and thus to better inform risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - P Dussort
- International Life Sciences Institute, Europe (ILSI Europe), Av E. Mounier 83, Box 6, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Helmut Günther
- Mondelēz International, Postfach 10 78 40, 28078, Bremen, Germany
| | - Paul Hanlon
- Abbott Nutrition, 3300 Stelzer Road, Dept. 104070, Bldg. RP3-2, Columbus, OH, 43219, USA
| | - Hiroshi Honda
- KAO Corporation, R&D Safety Science Research, 2606 Akabane, Ichikai-Machi, Haga-Gun, Tochigi, 321 3497, Japan
| | - Angela Mally
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Strasse 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sue O'Hagan
- PepsiCo Europe, 4 Leycroft Road, Leicester, LE4 1ET, UK
| | - Gabriele Scholz
- Nestlé Research Center, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, PO Box 44, 1000, Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Albrecht Seidel
- Biochemical Institute for Environmental Carcinogens Prof. Dr. Gernot Grimmer-Foundation, Lurup 4, 22927, Grosshansdorf, Germany
| | - James Swenberg
- Environmental Science and Engineering, UNC-Chapel Hill Cancer Genetics, 253c Rosenau Hall, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Justin Teeguarden
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, P.O. Box 999, Richland, WA, 99352, USA
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Department of Chemistry, University of Kaiserslautern, P.O. Box 3049, 67653, Kaiserslautern, Germany
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Chipman K, De Meulenaer B, Dinovi M, Mennes W, Schlatter J, Schrenk D, Baert K, Dujardin B, Wallace H. Risks for public health related to the presence of furan and methylfurans in food. EFSA J 2017; 15:e05005. [PMID: 32625300 PMCID: PMC7009982 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.5005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific evaluation on the risk to human health of the presence of furan and methylfurans (2-methylfuran, 3-methylfuran and 2,5-dimethylfuran) in food. They are formed in foods during thermal processing and can co-occur. Furans are produced from several precursors such as ascorbic acid, amino acids, carbohydrates, unsaturated fatty acids and carotenoids, and are found in a variety of foods including coffee and canned and jarred foods. Regarding furan occurrence, 17,056 analytical results were used in the evaluation. No occurrence data were received on methylfurans. The highest exposures to furan were estimated for infants, mainly from ready-to-eat meals. Grains and grain-based products contribute most for toddlers, other children and adolescents. In adults, elderly and very elderly, coffee is the main contributor to dietary exposure. Furan is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and is found in highest amounts in the liver. It has a short half-life and is metabolised by cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) to the reactive metabolite, cis-but-2-ene-1,4-dialdehyde (BDA). BDA can bind covalently to amino acids, proteins and DNA. Furan is hepatotoxic in rats and mice with cholangiofibrosis in rats and hepatocellular adenomas/carcinomas in mice being the most prominent effects. There is limited evidence of chromosomal damage in vivo and a lack of understanding of the underlying mechanism. Clear evidence for indirect mechanisms involved in carcinogenesis include oxidative stress, gene expression alterations, epigenetic changes, inflammation and increased cell proliferation. The CONTAM Panel used a margin of exposure (MOE) approach for the risk characterisation using as a reference point a benchmark dose lower confidence limit for a benchmark response of 10% of 0.064 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day for the incidence of cholangiofibrosis in the rat. The calculated MOEs indicate a health concern. This conclusion was supported by the calculated MOEs for the neoplastic effects.
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Heger S, Bluhm K, Brendt J, Mayer P, Anders N, Schäffer A, Seiler TB, Hollert H. Microscale In Vitro Assays for the Investigation of Neutral Red Retention and Ethoxyresorufin-O-Deethylase of Biofuels and Fossil Fuels. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0163862. [PMID: 27684069 PMCID: PMC5042516 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0163862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Only few information on the potential toxic effectiveness of biofuels are available. Due to increasing worldwide demand for energy and fuels during the past decades, biofuels are considered as a promising alternative for fossil fuels in the transport sector. Hence, more information on their hazard potentials are required to understand the toxicological impact of biofuels on the environment. In the German Cluster of Excellence "Tailor-made Fuels from Biomass" design processes for economical, sustainable and environmentally friendly biofuels are investigated. In an unique and interdisciplinary approach, ecotoxicological methods are applied to gain information on potential adverse environmental effects of biofuels at an early phase of their development. In the present study, three potential biofuels, ethyl levulinate, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran and 2-methylfuran were tested. Furthermore, we investigated a fossil gasoline fuel, a fossil diesel fuel and an established biodiesel. Two in vitro bioassays, one for assessing cytotoxicity and one for aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonism, so called dioxin-like activity, as measured by Ethoxyresorufin-O-Deethylase, were applied using the permanent fish liver cell line RTL-W1 (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The special properties of these fuel samples required modifications of the test design. Points that had to be addressed were high substance volatility, material compatibility and low solubility. For testing of gasoline, diesel and biodiesel, water accommodated fractions and a passive dosing approach were tested to address the high hydrophobicity and low solubility of these complex mixtures. Further work has to focus on an improvement of the chemical analyses of the fuel samples to allow a better comparison of any effects of fossil fuels and biofuels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Heger
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Ecosystem Analysis, Aachen, Germany
| | - Kerstin Bluhm
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Ecosystem Analysis, Aachen, Germany
| | - Julia Brendt
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Ecosystem Analysis, Aachen, Germany
| | - Philipp Mayer
- Technical University of Denmark, Department of Environmental Engineering, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Nico Anders
- RWTH Aachen University, Chemical Engineering, Enzyme Process Technology, Aachen, Germany
| | - Andreas Schäffer
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute for Environmental Research, Chair of Environmental Biology and Chemodynamcis, Aachen, Germany
- Chongqing University, College of Resources and Environmental Science, Chongqing, China
- Nanjing University, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing, China
| | - Thomas-Benjamin Seiler
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Ecosystem Analysis, Aachen, Germany
| | - Henner Hollert
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Ecosystem Analysis, Aachen, Germany
- Chongqing University, College of Resources and Environmental Science, Chongqing, China
- Nanjing University, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing, China
- Tongji University, College of Environmental Science and Engineering and State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Shanghai, China
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10
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Churchwell MI, Scheri RC, Von Tungeln LS, Gamboa da Costa G, Beland FA, Doerge DR. Evaluation of serum and liver toxicokinetics for furan and liver DNA adduct formation in male Fischer 344 rats. Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 86:1-8. [PMID: 26364877 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.08.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Furan is a food processing contaminant found in many common cooked foods that induces liver toxicity and liver cancer in animal models treated with sufficient doses. The metabolism of furan occurs primarily in the liver where CYP 2E1 produces a highly reactive bis-electrophile, cis-2-butene-1,4-dial (BDA). BDA reacts with nucleophilic groups in amino acids and DNA in vitro to form covalent adducts. Evidence for BDA-nucleoside adduct formation in vivo is limited but important for assessing the carcinogenic hazard of dietary furan. This study used controlled dosing with furan in Fischer 344 rats to measure serum and liver toxicokinetics and the possible formation of BDA-nucleoside adducts in vivo. After gavage exposure, furan concentrations in the liver were consistently higher than those in whole blood (∼6-fold), which is consistent with portal vein delivery of a lipophilic compound into the liver. Formation of BDA-2'-deoxycytidine in furan-treated rat liver DNA was not observed using LC/MS/MS after single doses as high as 9.2 mg/kg bw or repeated dosing for up to 360 days above a consistent background level (1-2 adducts per 10(8) nucleotides). This absence of BDA-nucleoside adduct formation is consistent with the general lack of evidence for genotoxicity of furan in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- M I Churchwell
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - R C Scheri
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - L S Von Tungeln
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - G Gamboa da Costa
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - F A Beland
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - D R Doerge
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
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Neuwirth C, Mosesso P, Pepe G, Fiore M, Malfatti M, Turteltaub K, Dekant W, Mally A. Furan carcinogenicity: DNA binding and genotoxicity of furan in rats in vivo. Mol Nutr Food Res 2012; 56:1363-74. [PMID: 22865590 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201200226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2012] [Revised: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE Furan is a potent hepatotoxicant and liver carcinogen in rodents. However, short-term tests for genotoxicity of furan are inconclusive. The aim of this study was to assess the potential of furan to covalently bind to DNA, and to assess furan genotoxicity in rats in vivo. MATERIALS AND METHODS Accelerator mass spectrometry was used to determine the (14) C-content in DNA following administration of [3,4-(14) C]-furan (0.1 and 2.0 mg/kg bw) to F344 rats. DNA damage, micronuclei, chromosomal aberrations, and sister chromatid exchanges were analyzed in F344 rats treated with furan for up to 28 days. CONCLUSION The (14) C-content in liver DNA was significantly increased in a dose-dependent manner, with mean concentrations of 7.9 ± 3.5 amol (14) C/μg DNA and 153.3 ± 100.2 amol (14) C/μg DNA, corresponding to 16.5 ± 7.4 and 325.2 ± 212.7 adducts/10(9) nucleotides at 0.1 and 2.0 mg/kg bw, respectively. There was no evidence for genotoxicity of furan in peripheral blood and bone marrow cells. However, a dose-related increase in the incidence of chromosomal aberrations in rat splenocytes and some indication of DNA damage in liver were observed. Collectively, results from this study indicate that furan may operate-at least in part-by a genotoxic mode of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Neuwirth
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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12
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Moro S, Chipman JK, Wegener JW, Hamberger C, Dekant W, Mally A. Furan in heat-treated foods: formation, exposure, toxicity, and aspects of risk assessment. Mol Nutr Food Res 2012; 56:1197-211. [PMID: 22641279 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201200093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2012] [Revised: 03/26/2012] [Accepted: 04/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Furan is formed in a variety of heat-treated foods through thermal degradation of natural food constituents. Relatively high levels of furan contamination are found in ground roasted coffee, instant coffee, and processed baby foods. European exposure estimates suggest that mean dietary exposure to furan may be as high as 1.23 and 1.01 μg/kg bw/day for adults and 3- to 12-month-old infants, respectively. Furan is a potent hepatotoxin and hepatocarcinogen in rodents, causing hepatocellular adenomas and carcinomas in rats and mice, and high incidences of cholangiocarcinomas in rats at doses ≥ 2 mg/kg bw. There is therefore a relatively low margin of exposure between estimated human exposure and doses that cause a high tumor incidence in rodents. Since a genotoxic mode of action cannot be excluded for furan-induced tumor formation, the present exposures may indicate a risk to human health and need for mitigation. This review summarizes the current knowledge on mechanisms of furan formation in food, human dietary exposure to furan, and furan toxicity, and highlights the need to establish the risk resulting from the genotoxic and carcinogenic properties of furan at doses lower than 2 mg/kg bw.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Moro
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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