1
|
Perego MC, Spicer LJ, Cortinovis C, Bertero A, Caloni F. In vitro effects of two environmental toxicants, beauvericin and glyphosate in Roundup, on cell numbers and steroidogenesis of bovine ovarian cells. Vet Res Commun 2024; 48:1769-1778. [PMID: 38558370 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-024-10357-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Beauvericin is an emerging Fusariotoxin naturally occurring in cereal grains throughout the world whereas glyphosate (N-phosphonomethyl-glycine) is a non-selective systemic herbicide used worldwide. The purpose of this study is to evaluate a newly developed ovarian cell culture system (that includes both granulosa and theca cells) as an in vitro model for toxicological studies. Specifically, the effects of beauvericin and glyphosate in formulation with Roundup on ovarian cell numbers and steroid production were evaluated. Ovaries collected from cattle without luteal structures were sliced into 30-70 pieces each, and granulosa and theca cells were collected. Harvested cells were cultured for 48 h in 10% fetal bovine serum-containing medium followed by 48 h in serum-free medium containing testosterone (500 ng/mL; as an estrogen precursor) with the following eight treatments: (1) controls, (2) FSH (30 ng/mL) alone, (3) FSH plus insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1; 30 ng/mL), (4) FSH plus IGF1 plus beauvericin (3 µM), (5) FSH plus IGF1 plus glyphosate in Roundup (10 µg/mL), (6) FSH plus IGF1 plus fibroblast growth factor 9 (FGF9, 30 ng/mL), (7) a negative control without added testosterone, and (8) IGF1 plus LH (30 ng/mL) with basal medium without added testosterone. In the presence of FSH, IGF1 significantly increased cell numbers, estradiol and progesterone production by severalfold. Glyphosate in Roundup formulation significantly inhibited IGF1-induced cell numbers and estradiol and progesterone production by 89-94%. Beauvericin inhibited IGF1-induced cell numbers and estradiol and progesterone by 50-97% production. LH plus IGF1 significantly increased androstenedione secretion compared with controls without added testosterone indicating the presence of theca cells. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that toxicological effects of beauvericin and glyphosate in Roundup formulation are observed in a newly developed ovarian cell model system and further confirms that both glyphosate and beauvericin may have the potential to impair reproductive function in cattle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M C Perego
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - L J Spicer
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
| | - C Cortinovis
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, Milan, 20133, Italy
| | - A Bertero
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - F Caloni
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, Milan, 20133, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jeong DH, Jung DW, Kim JW, Lee HS. Beauvericin, produced by Fusarium oxysporum inhibits bisphenol A-induced proliferation of human breast cancer cell line by regulating ERα/p38 pathway. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2024; 239:106483. [PMID: 38369033 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2024.106483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Beauvericin (BEA) is a cyclic depsipeptide secondary metabolite of Fusarium species. It causes chemical hazards in food products and exists in an environment containing soil and various food types. On the other hand, the purified BEA has various biological activities and is regarded as a potential candidate for pharmaceutical research. This study was performed to assess the anti-proliferation activity of BEA against human breast cancer cells by regulating the estrogen receptor-alpha (ERα)/p38 pathway. TA and BA assays verified that BEA is a completed ER antagonist. Additionally, BEA suppressed cell proliferation in the anti-proliferation assay involving ER-positive human breast cancer cells co-treated with BPA and BEA. In respect to an anti-proliferation activity, the BPA-induced phosphorylation of p38 protein was inhibited in the presence of BEA. These results suggested that BEA exerts inhibitory potentials on endocrine disrupting effect and possibly acts as a natural therapeutic material for human estrogen hormonal health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Da-Hyun Jeong
- GreenTech-based Food Safety Research Group, BK21 Four, Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Da-Woon Jung
- GreenTech-based Food Safety Research Group, BK21 Four, Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Won Kim
- Department of Food Safety and Regulatory Science, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Seok Lee
- GreenTech-based Food Safety Research Group, BK21 Four, Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, Republic of Korea; Department of Food Safety and Regulatory Science, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Al Khoury C, Tokajian S, Nemer N, Nemer G, Rahy K, Thoumi S, Al Samra L, Sinno A. Computational Applications: Beauvericin from a Mycotoxin into a Humanized Drug. Metabolites 2024; 14:232. [PMID: 38668360 PMCID: PMC11051850 DOI: 10.3390/metabo14040232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Drug discovery was initially attributed to coincidence or experimental research. Historically, the traditional approaches were complex, lengthy, and expensive, entailing costly random screening of synthesized compounds or natural products coupled with in vivo validation largely depending on the availability of appropriate animal models. Currently, in silico modeling has become a vital tool for drug discovery and repurposing. Molecular docking and dynamic simulations are being used to find the best match between a ligand and a molecule, an approach that could help predict the biomolecular interactions between the drug and the target host. Beauvericin (BEA) is an emerging mycotoxin produced by the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana, being originally studied for its potential use as a pesticide. BEA is now considered a molecule of interest for its possible use in diverse biotechnological applications in the pharmaceutical industry and medicine. In this manuscript, we provide an overview of the repurposing of BEA as a potential therapeutic agent for multiple diseases. Furthermore, considerable emphasis is given to the fundamental role of in silico techniques to (i) further investigate the activity spectrum of BEA, a secondary metabolite, and (ii) elucidate its mode of action.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charbel Al Khoury
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Beirut Campus, P.O. Box 13-5053, Chouran, Beirut 1102 2801, Lebanon
| | - Sima Tokajian
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Byblos Campus, Byblos P.O. Box 36, Lebanon
| | - Nabil Nemer
- Department of Agriculture and Food Engineering, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Jounieh P.O. Box 446, Lebanon
| | - Georges Nemer
- Division of Genomics and Translational Biomedicine, College of Health and Life Sciences, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha P.O. Box 34110, Qatar
| | - Kelven Rahy
- Gilbert and Rose-Marie Chagoury School of Medicine, Lebanese American University, Byblos P.O. Box 36, Lebanon
| | - Sergio Thoumi
- Department of Computer Science and Mathematics, Lebanese American University, Beirut P.O. Box 13-5053, Lebanon
| | - Lynn Al Samra
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Beirut Campus, P.O. Box 13-5053, Chouran, Beirut 1102 2801, Lebanon
| | - Aia Sinno
- Department of Natural Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Lebanese American University, Beirut Campus, P.O. Box 13-5053, Chouran, Beirut 1102 2801, Lebanon
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hasuda AL, Bracarense APFRL. Toxicity of the emerging mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins: A mini-review. Toxicon 2024; 239:107534. [PMID: 38013058 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Beauvericin and enniatins, emerging mycotoxins produced mainly by Fusarium species, are natural contaminants of cereals and cereal products. These mycotoxins are cyclic hexadepsipeptides with ionophore properties and their toxicity mechanism is related to their ability to transport cations across the cell membrane. Beauvericin and enniatins are cytotoxic, as they decrease cell viability, promote cell cycle arrest, and increase apoptosis and the generation of reactive oxygen species in several cell lines. They also cause changes at the transcriptomic level and have immunomodulatory effects in vitro and in vivo. Toxicokinetic results are scarce, and, despite its proven toxic effects in vitro, no regulation or risk assessment has yet been performed due to a lack of in vivo data. This mini-review aims to report the information available in the literature on studies of in vitro and in vivo toxic effects with beauvericin and enniatins, which are mycotoxins of increasing interest to animal and human health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Lopes Hasuda
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Londrina State University, P.O. Box 10.011, Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil.
| | - Ana Paula F R L Bracarense
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Londrina State University, P.O. Box 10.011, Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Bi Y, Wu L, Li B, Hao Y, Li Z, Zhang J, Cheng A, Yuan G, Fan J. Effects of beauvericin on the blood cells of Bombyx mori. J Invertebr Pathol 2023; 201:108003. [PMID: 37838064 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2023.108003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023]
Abstract
In this study, silkworms were treated by injection of the bioactive depsipeptide beauvericin (BEA) to explore its effect on the cellular immunity of larvae of the silkworm Bombyx mori. The results showed that: The LC50 of BEA for silkworms on the 3rd day of the 4th instar was 362.36 µM. The total count of circulating hemocytes in the silkworms decreased at 12 h after injection with 350 µM BEA, and reached the minimum value at 72 h post-treatment; at 48 h post-treatment, a large number of nodules formed by the aggregation of blood cells of the silkworms were observed under the light microscope. The survival rate of hemocytes in the larvae treated with BEA was significantly reduced in a dose-dependent manner in vivo and in vitro. The encapsulation of Q-Sepharose Fast Flow (QFF) gel particles by hemocytes in the treatment group was significantly higher than that in the control group at 1.5 h and 3 h post-treatment (P < 0.05). Moreover, the melanization ratio of QFF gel particles kept increasing with treatment time. The melanization rate at 24 h after treatment was significantly higher than that at other times (P < 0.05), reaching 55.33 %. Under the scanning electron microscope, BEA-treated larvae showed protrusions on the surface of their blood cells in vivo. Under the transmission electron microscope, it was observed that silkworm hemocytes were vacuolated. This study demonstrated that BEA had an effect on the blood cells of silkworms, and has thrown some light on the inhibitory effect and mechanism of BEA on insect cellular immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yong Bi
- College of Forestry, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030800, China
| | - Lingzhi Wu
- College of Forestry, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030800, China
| | - Baozhen Li
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong 030619, China.
| | - Yanping Hao
- College of Forestry, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030800, China
| | - Zixiao Li
- College of Forestry, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030800, China
| | - Jiwei Zhang
- College of Forestry, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030800, China
| | - Aiying Cheng
- College of Forestry, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030800, China
| | - Guizhen Yuan
- College of Forestry, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030800, China
| | - Jinhua Fan
- College of Forestry, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030800, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Assessing bioaccessibility and bioavailability in vitro of phenolic compounds from freeze-dried apple pomace by LC-Q-TOF-MS. FOOD BIOSCI 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbio.2022.101799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
7
|
Spicer LJ, Schütz LF. Effects of grape phenolics, myricetin and piceatannol, on bovine granulosa and theca cell proliferation and steroid production in vitro. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 167:113288. [PMID: 35820639 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Myricetin (a flavonol) and piceatannol (a stilbenoid) are naturally occurring phenolic compounds in red wine with cardio-protective and anti-carcinogenic effects, but their potential reproductive effects have not been investigated. Thus, the present study was designed to determine if myricetin and piceatannol can directly affect ovarian function using bovine granulosa cells (GC) and theca cells (TC) as in vitro model systems to evaluate effects on cell proliferation and steroid production. In Experiment 1 and 2, myricetin and piceatannol at 30 μM blocked insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1)-induced progesterone production by GC without affecting GC numbers. In contrast, myricetin stimulated IGF1-induced estradiol production, whereas piceatannol at 30 μM inhibited IGF1-induced estradiol production by 90% in GC. In Experiment 3 and 4, TC androstenedione and progesterone production and TC proliferation was inhibited by myricetin and piceatannol at 30 μM. In Experiment 5, piceatannol (30 μM) reduced the Fusarium mycotoxin, beauvericin (6 μM)-induced inhibition on progesterone production and cell proliferation. Myricetin (30 μM) reduced the inhibitory effect of beauvericin on estradiol but not progesterone production or cell proliferation. In conclusion, the red wine phenols, myricetin and piceatannol, directly affected GC and TC steroidogenesis, and were able to reduce some of the inhibitory effects of beauvericin on GC function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leon J Spicer
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
| | - Luis F Schütz
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Nichea MJ, Cendoya E, Haidukowski M, Torres AM, Ramirez ML. Ecophysiology of Fusarium chaquense a Novel Type A Trichothecene Producer Species Isolated from Natural Grasses. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:895. [PMID: 34941732 PMCID: PMC8705393 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Fusarium chaquense, a recently formally described novel species, has been identified as an T-2 toxin (T-2), HT-2 toxin (HT-2) and other toxins producer in natural grasses (Poaceae) from Argentina. The major objective of this study was to describe the effect of water activity (aW, 0.995, 0.98, 0.95, 0.93 and 0.91), temperature (15, 25 and 30 °C) and incubation time (5, 15 and 25 days) on growth and to evaluate the production of T-2, HT-2 toxins and beauvericin (BEA) by two F. chaquense strains in a grass-based media. The results showed a wide range of conditions for F. chaquense growth and mycotoxin production. Both strains had a maximum growth rate at the highest aW (0.995) and 25 °C. Regarding mycotoxin production, more T-2 than the other analysed mycotoxins were produced by the two strains. T-2 production was favoured at 0.995 aW and 30 °C, while HT-2 production at 0.98-0.95 aW and 15 °C. The maximum levels of BEA were produced at 0.995 aW and 25-30 °C. Two-dimensional profiles of aW by temperature interactions were obtained from these data in order to identify areas where conditions indicate a significant risk of mycotoxins accumulation on grass. For its versatility on growth and mycotoxin production in a wide range of aW and temperatures, F. chaquense would have an adaptive advantage over other Fusarium species, and this would explain its high frequency of isolation in natural grasses grown up in the Chaco wetlands.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria J. Nichea
- Research Institute on Mycology and Mycotoxicology (IMICO), National Scientific and Technical Research Council-National University of Río Cuarto (CONICET-UNRC), Río Cuarto 5800, Argentina; (M.J.N.); (E.C.); (A.M.T.)
| | - Eugenia Cendoya
- Research Institute on Mycology and Mycotoxicology (IMICO), National Scientific and Technical Research Council-National University of Río Cuarto (CONICET-UNRC), Río Cuarto 5800, Argentina; (M.J.N.); (E.C.); (A.M.T.)
| | | | - Adriana M. Torres
- Research Institute on Mycology and Mycotoxicology (IMICO), National Scientific and Technical Research Council-National University of Río Cuarto (CONICET-UNRC), Río Cuarto 5800, Argentina; (M.J.N.); (E.C.); (A.M.T.)
| | - María L. Ramirez
- Research Institute on Mycology and Mycotoxicology (IMICO), National Scientific and Technical Research Council-National University of Río Cuarto (CONICET-UNRC), Río Cuarto 5800, Argentina; (M.J.N.); (E.C.); (A.M.T.)
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Identification and Functional Characterization of the Gene Cluster Responsible for Fusaproliferin Biosynthesis in Fusarium proliferatum. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13070468. [PMID: 34357940 PMCID: PMC8310001 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13070468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The emerging mycotoxin fusaproliferin is produced by Fusarium proliferatum and other related Fusarium species. Several fungi from other taxonomic groups were also reported to produce fusaproliferin or the deacetylated derivative, known as siccanol or terpestacin. Here, we describe the identification and functional characterization of the Fusarium proliferatum genes encoding the fusaproliferin biosynthetic enzymes: a terpenoid synthase, two cytochrome P450s, a FAD-oxidase and an acetyltransferase. With the exception of one gene encoding a CYP450 (FUP2, FPRN_05484), knock-out mutants of the candidate genes could be generated, and the production of fusaproliferin and intermediates was tested by LC-MS/MS. Inactivation of the FUP1 (FPRN_05485) terpenoid synthase gene led to complete loss of fusaproliferin production. Disruption of a putative FAD-oxidase (FUP4, FPRN_05486) did not only affect oxidation of preterpestacin III to terpestacin, but also of new side products (11-oxo-preterpstacin and terpestacin aldehyde). In the knock-out strains lacking the predicted acetyltransferase (FUP5, FPRN_05487) fusaproliferin was no longer formed, but terpestacin was found at elevated levels. A model for the biosynthesis of fusaproliferin and of novel derivatives found in mutants is presented.
Collapse
|
10
|
Payros D, Garofalo M, Pierron A, Soler-Vasco L, Al-Ayoubi C, Maruo VM, Alassane-Kpembi I, Pinton P, Oswald IP. Les mycotoxines en alimentation humaine : un défi pour la recherche. CAHIERS DE NUTRITION ET DE DIÉTÉTIQUE 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cnd.2021.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
11
|
Beauvericin and Enniatins: In Vitro Intestinal Effects. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12110686. [PMID: 33138307 PMCID: PMC7693699 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Food and feed contamination by emerging mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins is a worldwide health problem and a matter of great concern nowadays, and data on their toxicological behavior are still scarce. As ingestion is the major route of exposure to mycotoxins in food and feed, the gastrointestinal tract represents the first barrier encountered by these natural contaminants and the first structure that could be affected by their potential detrimental effects. In order to perform a complete and reliable toxicological evaluation, this fundamental site cannot be disregarded. Several in vitro intestinal models able to recreate the different traits of the intestinal environment have been applied to investigate the various aspects related to the intestinal toxicity of emerging mycotoxins. This review aims to depict an overall and comprehensive representation of the in vitro intestinal effects of beauvericin and enniatins in humans from a species-specific perspective. Moreover, information on the occurrence in food and feed and notions on the regulatory aspects will be provided.
Collapse
|
12
|
Tran VN, Viktorová J, Ruml T. Mycotoxins: Biotransformation and Bioavailability Assessment Using Caco-2 Cell Monolayer. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E628. [PMID: 33008111 PMCID: PMC7601793 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The determination of mycotoxins content in food is not sufficient for the prediction of their potential in vivo cytotoxicity because it does not reflect their bioavailability and mutual interactions within complex matrices, which may significantly alter the toxic effects. Moreover, many mycotoxins undergo biotransformation and metabolization during the intestinal absorption process. Biotransformation is predominantly the conversion of mycotoxins meditated by cytochrome P450 and other enzymes. This should transform the toxins to nontoxic metabolites but it may possibly result in unexpectedly high toxicity. Therefore, the verification of biotransformation and bioavailability provides valuable information to correctly interpret occurrence data and biomonitoring results. Among all of the methods available, the in vitro models using monolayer formed by epithelial cells from the human colon (Caco-2 cell) have been extensively used for evaluating the permeability, bioavailability, intestinal transport, and metabolism of toxic and biologically active compounds. Here, the strengths and limitations of both in vivo and in vitro techniques used to determine bioavailability are reviewed, along with current detailed data about biotransformation of mycotoxins. Furthermore, the molecular mechanism of mycotoxin effects is also discussed regarding the disorder of intestinal barrier integrity induced by mycotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tomáš Ruml
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.)
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Beauvericin alters the expression of genes coding for key proteins of the mitochondrial chain in ovine cumulus-oocyte complexes. Mycotoxin Res 2020; 37:1-9. [PMID: 32981022 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00409-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Beauvericin (BEA) is a member of the enniatin family of mycotoxins which has received increasing interest because of frequent occurrence in food and feed. By its ionophoric properties, BEA is able to alter membrane ion permeability uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation. It was also shown to alter oocyte mitochondrial function. In this study, the effects of BEA at 0.5, 1, ,3 and 5 μmol/L on expression of genes coding for key proteins of the mitochondrial chain in ovine oocytes and cumulus cells were evaluated at different time points of in vitro maturation (IVM), germinal vesicle (GV; t = 0), metaphase I (MI; t = 7 h), and metaphase II (MII; t = 24 h). The expression of nuclear (TFAM, NDUFA12, UQCRH, COX4, ATP5O) and mitochondrial (ND1, COX1, COX2, ATP6, ATP8) genes coding for proteins of Complexes I, III, IV, and V was analyzed by qRT-PCR. After BEA exposure, perturbed expression of all genes was observed in cumulus cells and in oocytes at the MI stage (7 h IVM). Expression of ND1, UQCRH, COX4 and ATP5O was downregulated in cumulus cells and upregulated in oocytes starting from 0.5 μmol/L BEA. Expression of TFAM, NDUFA12, COX1, COX2, ATP6, and ATP8 was upregulated starting from 1 μmol/L in cumulus cells and from 3 μmol/L in oocytes. Cumulus cells and oocytes displayed different gene expression patterns upon BEA exposure. The downregulation in cumulus cells of four genes coding for proteins of mitochondrial complexes could represent a major toxic event induced by BEA on the cumulus-oocyte complex which may result in mitochondrial functional alteration.
Collapse
|
14
|
Perego MC, Morrell BC, Zhang L, Schütz LF, Spicer LJ. Developmental and hormonal regulation of ubiquitin-like with plant homeodomain and really interesting new gene finger domains 1 gene expression in ovarian granulosa and theca cells of cattle. J Anim Sci 2020; 98:5866609. [PMID: 32614952 DOI: 10.1093/jas/skaa205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Ubiquitin-like with plant homeodomain and really interesting new gene finger domains 1 (UHRF1) is a multi-domain nuclear protein that plays an important role in epigenetics and tumorigenesis, but its role in normal ovarian follicle development remains unknown. Thus, the present study evaluated if UHRF1 mRNA abundance in bovine follicular cells is developmentally and hormonally regulated, and if changes in UHRF1 are associated with changes in DNA methylation in follicular cells. Abundance of UHRF1 mRNA was greater in granulosa cells (GC) and theca cells (TC) from small (<6 mm) than large (≥8 mm) follicles and was greater in small-follicle GC than TC. In GC and TC, fibroblast growth factor 9 (FGF9) treatment increased (P < 0.05) UHRF1 expression by 2-fold. Also, luteinizing hormone (LH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) increased (P < 0.05) UHRF1 expression in TC by 2-fold, and forskolin (an adenylate cyclase inducer) alone or combined with IGF1 increased (P < 0.05) UHRF1 expression by 3-fold. An E2F transcription factor inhibitor (E2Fi) decreased (P < 0.05) UHRF1 expression by 44% in TC and by 99% in GC. Estradiol, progesterone, and dibutyryl-cAMP decreased (P < 0.05) UHRF1 mRNA abundance in GC. Treatment of GC with follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) alone had no effect but when combined with IGF1 enhanced the UHRF1 mRNA abundance by 2.7-fold. Beauvericin (a mycotoxin) completely inhibited the FSH plus IGF1-induced UHRF1 expression in small-follicle GC. Treatments that increased UHRF1 mRNA (i.e., FGF9) in GC tended to decrease (by 63%; P < 0.10) global DNA methylation, and those that decreased UHRF1 mRNA (i.e., E2Fi) in GC tended to increase (by 2.4-fold; P < 0.10) global DNA methylation. Collectively, these results suggest that UHRF1 expression in both GC and TC is developmentally and hormonally regulated, and that UHRF1 may play a role in follicular growth and development as well as be involved in ovarian epigenetic processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Breanne C Morrell
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK
| | | | | | - Leon J Spicer
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Montesano D, Juan-García A, Mañes J, Juan C. Chemoprotective effect of carotenoids from Lycium barbarum L. on SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells treated with beauvericin. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 141:111414. [PMID: 32387444 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Goji berry has recently been introduced in Mediterranean diet and its consumption is increasing. This study aims to determine cytoprotection of lutein (LUT), zeaxanthin (ZEAX) and goji berry extract (GBE) rich in carotenoids against Beauvericin (BEA)-induced cytotoxicity on SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Both carotenoids and GBE showed cytoprotective effects. Cytoprotection was evaluated by simultaneous combination of the two xanthophylls LUT and ZEAX with BEA, as well as using pre-treatment assays. The highest protective effect occurred in 16%, 24% and 12% respectively for LUT, ZEAX and LUT + ZEAX incubating simultaneously with BEA, while by pre-treatment assay LUT showed a cytoprotection effect over 30% and ZEAX alone or LUT + ZEAX promoted only a slight cytoprotection (<10%). Pre-treatment assays with GBE, showed a cytoprotection, between 3 and 20%, for BEA concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 6.25 μM, whereas no protective effect was observed when the cells were simultaneously incubated with GBE and BEA. Finally, by means of CI-isobologram method, the interaction between LUT, ZEAX and BEA were evaluated, and the results showed an synergism effect for almost all combinations tested. The data presented shows a option of using goji berries to potentially mitigate the toxicity of beauvericin eventually present in foods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Montesano
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Section of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Perugia, Via San Costanzo 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy.
| | - Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Jordi Mañes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Juan-García A, Montesano D, Mañes J, Juan C. Cytoprotective effects of carotenoids-rich extract from Lycium barbarum L. on the beauvericin-induced cytotoxicity on Caco-2 cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 133:110798. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.110798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 08/24/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
17
|
Juan-García A, Tolosa J, Juan C, Ruiz MJ. Cytotoxicity, Genotoxicity and Disturbance of Cell Cycle in HepG2 Cells Exposed to OTA and BEA: Single and Combined Actions. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11060341. [PMID: 31208011 PMCID: PMC6628395 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are produced by a number of fungal genera spp., for example, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, Fusarium, and Claviceps. Beauvericin (BEA) and Ochratoxin A (OTA) are present in various cereal crops and processed grains. This goal of this study was to determine their combination effect in HepG2 cells, presented for the first time. In this study, the type of interaction among BEA and OTA through an isobologram method, cell cycle disturbance by flow cytometry, and genotoxic potential by in vitro micronucleus (MN) assay following the TG 487 (OECD, 2016) of BEA and OTA individually and combined in HepG2 cells are presented. Cytotoxic concentration ranges studied by the MTT assay over 24, 48, and 72 h were from 0 to 25 µM for BEA and from 0 to 100 µM for OTA, while BEA + OTA combinations were at a 1:10 ratio from 3.4 to 27.5 µM. The toxicity observed for BEA was higher than for OTA at all times assayed; additive and synergistic effects were detected for their mixtures. Cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase was detected for OTA and BEA + OTA treatments in HepG2 cells. Genotoxicity revealed significant effects for BEA, OTA, and in combinations underlining the importance of studying real exposure scenarios of chronic exposure to mycotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
| | - Josefa Tolosa
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
- ProtoQSAR, CEEI, Avda. Benjamin Franklin 12, Paterna, 46980 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
| | - María-José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Presence of mycotoxins in ready-to-eat food and subsequent risk assessment. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 121:558-565. [PMID: 30266314 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.09.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
A study on a set of ready-to-eat meals (n = 328) based on cereals, legumes, vegetables, fish and meat was carried out to determine the natural presence of twenty-seven mycotoxins by both liquid chromatography and gas chromatography coupled mass spectrometry in tandem (MS/MS) after QuEChERS extraction. The occurrence of mycotoxins was headed by cereal samples with 35% of samples contaminated by at least one mycotoxin followed by vegetables (32%), legumes (15%) and lastly, 9% of fish and meat samples were contaminated. DON was the most detected mycotoxin in vegetables, meat, fish and cereals with an incidence of 13% 18% 19% and 60%, respectively, and the highest mean levels were found in fish (1.19 μg/kg) and vegetable (1.53 μg/kg), respectively. The highest levels means were for HT-2 toxin ranging from 4.03 to 7.79 μg/kg, in cereal and legume samples respectively. In this last, HT-2 toxin was also the most prevalent (54%). In meat samples, OTA resulted with highest value with 8.09 μg/kg. Likewise, PCA analysis revealed a high correlation between the mycotoxins and the food groups analyzed. The findings indicate that there is no toxicological concern associated with exposure to mycotoxins for consumers as all levels were in accordance with the legislation.
Collapse
|
19
|
Mamur S, Ünal F, Yılmaz S, Erikel E, Yüzbaşıoğlu D. Evaluation of the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of mycotoxin fusaric acid. Drug Chem Toxicol 2018; 43:149-157. [PMID: 30204001 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2018.1499772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Fusaric acid (FA) is produced by several Fusarium species and is commonly found in grains. This investigation was performed to evaluate the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of FA either in human cervix carcinoma (HeLa) cell line using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2,5 diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and in human lymphocytes using chromosome aberrations (CAs), sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs), micronuclei (MN) as well as comet assay in vitro. The cells were treated with 0.78, 1.56, 3.125, 6.25, 12.50, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 µg/mL concentrations of FA. It has potent cytotoxic effect on HeLa cell line measured by MTT assay especially at higher concentrations (200, 400 µg/mL). The half of inhibitory concentration (IC50) evidenced by FA in the HeLa cells was 200 μg/mL at 24 h and between 200 and 400 μg/mL at 48 h. It was also observed that FA produced a significant decrease in mitotic index (MI) at 12.50 µg/mL compared to solvent control. Furthermore, it indicated a cytotoxic effect at the concentrations ranging from 25 to 400 μg/mL in human lymphocytes. The results of this research point out that being exposed to FA at high concentrations show cytotoxicity. Besides FA induced comet tail intensity at 3.125, 6.25, and 12.50 µg/mL concentrations in isolated human lymphocytes. On the other hand, no genotoxic effects were seen in human lymphocytes in vitro using CA, SCE and MN assays.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sevcan Mamur
- Life Sciences Application and Research Center, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Fatma Ünal
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Serkan Yılmaz
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Midwifery, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Esra Erikel
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Deniz Yüzbaşıoğlu
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Bertero A, Moretti A, Spicer LJ, Caloni F. Fusarium Molds and Mycotoxins: Potential Species-Specific Effects. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E244. [PMID: 29914090 PMCID: PMC6024576 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10060244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This review summarizes the information on biochemical and biological activity of the main Fusarium mycotoxins, focusing on toxicological aspects in terms of species-specific effects. Both in vitro and in vivo studies have centered on the peculiarity of the responses to mycotoxins, demonstrating that toxicokinetics, bioavailability and the mechanisms of action of these substances vary depending on the species involved, but additional studies are needed to better understand the specific responses. The aim of this review is to summarize the toxicological responses of the main species affected by Fusarium mycotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Bertero
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEVET), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Antonio Moretti
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council of Italy, Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy.
| | - Leon J Spicer
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
| | - Francesca Caloni
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEVET), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Carballo D, Font G, Ferrer E, Berrada H. Evaluation of Mycotoxin Residues on Ready-to-Eat Food by Chromatographic Methods Coupled to Mass Spectrometry in Tandem. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E243. [PMID: 29914055 PMCID: PMC6024867 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10060243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Simultaneous determination of twenty-seven mycotoxins in ready-to-eat food samples using “Quick Easy Cheap Rough and Safe” (QuEChERS) extraction and chromatographic methods coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem is described in this study. Mycotoxins included in this survey were aflatoxins (B₁, B₂, G₁, G₂), enniatins (A, A₁, B, B₁), beauvericin (BEA), fumonisins (FB₁, FB₂), sterigmatocystin (STG), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON), nivalenol (NIV), neosolaniol (NEO), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), fusarenon-X (FUS-X), zearalenone (ZEA), α-zearalanol (αZAL), β-zearalenone (βZAL), α-zearalenol (αZOL), β-zearalenol (βzol), T2, and HT-2 toxin. The method showed satisfactory extraction results with recoveries ranging from 63 to 119% for the different food matrix samples. Limits of detection (LODS) and quantification (LOQs) were between 0.15⁻1.5 µg/kg and 0.5⁻5 µg/kg, respectively. The method was successfully applied to the analysis of 25 ready-to-eat food samples. Results showed presence of deoxynivalenol at 36% of samples (2.61⁻21.59 µg/kg), enniatin B at 20% of samples (9.83⁻86.32 µg/kg), HT-2 toxin at 16% of samples (9.06⁻34.43 µg/kg), and aflatoxin G₂ at 4% of samples (2.84 µg/kg). Mycotoxins were detected mainly in ready-to-eat food samples prepared with cereals, vegetables, and legumes, even at levels below those often obtained from raw food.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dionisia Carballo
- Faculty of Agricultural Science, National University of Asunción, San Lorenzo 2160, Paraguay.
| | - Guillermina Font
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avenue Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain.
| | - Emilia Ferrer
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avenue Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain.
| | - Houda Berrada
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avenue Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Multi-mycotoxin determination in rice, maize and peanut products most consumed in Côte d’Ivoire by UHPLC-MS/MS. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
|
23
|
In vitro mechanisms of Beauvericin toxicity: A review. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 111:537-545. [PMID: 29154952 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Revised: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Beauvericin (BEA) is a mycotoxin produced by many species of fungus Fusarium and by Beauveria bassiana; BEA is a natural contaminant of cereals and cereals based products and possesses a wide variety of biological properties. The mechanism of action seems to be related to its ionophoric activity, that increases ion permeability in biological membranes. As a consequence, BEA causes cytotoxicity in several cell lines and is capable to produce oxidative stress at molecular level. Moreover, BEA is genotoxic (produces DNA fragmentation, chromosomal aberrations and micronucleus) and causes apoptosis with the involvement of mitochondrial pathway. However, several antioxidant mechanisms protect cells against oxidative stress produced by BEA. Despite its strong cytotoxicity, no risk assessment have been still carried out by authorities due to a lack of toxicity data, so research on BEA toxicological impact is still going on. This review reports information available regarding BEA mechanistic toxicology with the aim of updating information regarding last researches on this mycotoxin.
Collapse
|
24
|
Gruber-Dorninger C, Novak B, Nagl V, Berthiller F. Emerging Mycotoxins: Beyond Traditionally Determined Food Contaminants. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:7052-7070. [PMID: 27599910 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b03413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Modern analytical techniques can determine a multitude of fungal metabolites contaminating food and feed. In addition to known mycotoxins, for which maximum levels in food are enforced, also currently unregulated, so-called "emerging mycotoxins" were shown to occur frequently in agricultural products. The aim of this review is to critically discuss the relevance of selected emerging mycotoxins to food and feed safety. Acute and chronic toxicity as well as occurrence data are presented for enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, fusaproliferin, fusaric acid, culmorin, butenolide, sterigmatocystin, emodin, mycophenolic acid, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, and tenuazonic acid. By far not all of the detected compounds are toxicologically relevant at their naturally occurring levels and are therefore of little or no health concern to consumers. Still, gaps in knowledge have been identified for several compounds. These gaps should be closed by the scientific community in the coming years to allow a proper risk assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Barbara Novak
- BIOMIN Research Center , Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Veronika Nagl
- BIOMIN Research Center , Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU) , Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Albonico M, Schutz LF, Caloni F, Cortinovis C, Spicer LJ. In vitro effects of the Fusarium mycotoxins fumonisin B1 and beauvericin on bovine granulosa cell proliferation and steroid production. Toxicon 2017; 128:38-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2016] [Revised: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
26
|
Assunção R, Silva M, Alvito P. Challenges in risk assessment of multiple mycotoxins in food. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2016. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2016.2039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Most fungi are able to produce several mycotoxins simultaneously and, consequently, to contaminate a wide variety of foodstuffs. Therefore, the risk of human co-exposure to multiple mycotoxins is real, raising a growing concern about their potential impact on human health. Besides, government and industry regulations are usually based on individual toxicities, and do not take into account the complex dynamics associated with interactions between co-occurring groups of mycotoxins. The present work assembles, for the first time, the challenges posed by the likelihood of human co-exposure to these toxins and the possibility of interactive effects occurring after absorption, towards knowledge generation to support a more accurate human risk assessment. Regarding hazard assessment, a physiologically-based framework is proposed in order to infer the health effects from exposure to multiple mycotoxins in food, including knowledge on the bioaccessibility, toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of single and combined toxins. The prioritisation of the most relevant mixtures to be tested under experimental conditions that attempt to mimic human exposure and the use of adequate mathematical approaches to evaluate interactions, particularly concerning the combined genotoxicity, were identified as the main challenges for hazard assessment. Regarding exposure assessment, the need of harmonised food consumption data, availability of multianalyte methods for mycotoxin quantification, management of left-censored data, use of probabilistic models and multibiomarker approaches are highlighted, in order to develop a more precise and realistic exposure assessment. To conclude, further studies on hazard and exposure assessment of multiple mycotoxins, using harmonised methodologies, are crucial towards an improvement of data quality and a more reliable and robust risk characterisation, which is central for risk management and, consequently, to prevent mycotoxins-associated adverse effects. A deep understanding of the nature of interactions between multiple mycotoxins will contribute to draw real conclusions on the health impact of human exposure to mycotoxin mixtures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R. Assunção
- Food and Nutrition Department, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, I.P. (INSA), Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
- IIFA, Universidade de Évora, Palácio do Vimioso, Largo Marquês de Marialva, Apartado 94, 7002-554 Évora, Portugal
| | - M.J. Silva
- Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, I.P. (INSA), Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Center for Toxicogenomics and Human Health (ToxOmics), Nova Medical School, FCM-UNL, Campo Mártires da Pátria 130, 1169-056 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - P. Alvito
- Food and Nutrition Department, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, I.P. (INSA), Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Blood-brain barrier transport kinetics of the cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins. Toxicol Lett 2016; 258:175-184. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.06.1741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
28
|
Schoevers EJ, Santos RR, Fink-Gremmels J, Roelen BAJ. Toxicity of beauvericin on porcine oocyte maturation and preimplantation embryo development. Reprod Toxicol 2016; 65:159-169. [PMID: 27474255 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2016.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 07/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Beauvericin (BEA) is one of many toxins produced by Fusarium species that contaminate feed materials. The aim of this study was to assess its effects on porcine oocyte maturation and preimplantation embryo development. Cumulus-oocyte-complexes and developing embryos were exposed to BEA and cultured until the blastocyst stage. Cumulus cells, oocytes and embryos were examined for viability, progesterone synthesis, multidrug resistance protein (MDR1), ATP content and gene expression related to MDR1 function, oxidative phosphorylation, steroidogenesis and apoptosis. BEA was toxic in embryos, oocytes and cumulus cells at concentrations exceeding 0.5μM, and embryos were most vulnerable after the four-cell stage. Since BEA exerted different effects in embryos, oocytes and cumulus cells, the toxic mechanism is suggested to involve different pathways. Currently there are no consistent data on adverse effects of BEA in pig farms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Schoevers
- Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 104, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Regiane R Santos
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 104, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Johanna Fink-Gremmels
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 104, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bernard A J Roelen
- Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 104, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Fernández-Blanco C, Frizzell C, Shannon M, Ruiz MJ, Connolly L. An in vitro investigation on the cytotoxic and nuclear receptor transcriptional activity of the mycotoxins fumonisin B1 and beauvericin. Toxicol Lett 2016; 257:1-10. [PMID: 27234500 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisin B1 (FB1) and beauvericin (BEA) are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi, which under appropriate temperature and humidity conditions may develop on various foods and feeds. To date few studies have been performed to evaluate the toxicological and endocrine disrupting effects of FB1 and BEA. The present study makes use of various in vitro bioassays including; oestrogen, androgen, progestagen and glucocorticoid reporter gene assays (RGAs) for the study of nuclear receptor transcriptional activity, the thiazolyl blue tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay to monitor cytotoxicity and high content analysis (HCA) for the detection of pre-lethal toxicity in the RGA and Caco-2 human colon adenocarcinoma cells. At the receptor level, 0.001-10μM BEA or FB1 did not induce any agonist responses in the RGAs. However at non-cytotoxic concentrations, an antagonistic effect was exhibited by FB1 on the androgen nuclear receptor transcriptional activity at 10μM and BEA on the progestagen and glucocorticoid receptors at 1μM. MTT analysis showed no decrease in cell viability at any concentration of FB1, whereas BEA showed a significant decrease in viability at 10μM. HCA analysis confirmed that the reduction in the progestagen receptor transcriptional activity at 1μM BEA was not due to pre-lethal toxicity. In addition, BEA (10μM) induced significant toxicity in both the TM-Luc (progestagen responsive) and Caco-2 cells.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Adenocarcinoma/genetics
- Adenocarcinoma/metabolism
- Adenocarcinoma/pathology
- Caco-2 Cells
- Cell Nucleus/drug effects
- Cell Nucleus/metabolism
- Cell Nucleus/pathology
- Cell Survival/drug effects
- Colonic Neoplasms/genetics
- Colonic Neoplasms/metabolism
- Colonic Neoplasms/pathology
- Depsipeptides/toxicity
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Endocrine Disruptors/toxicity
- Fumonisins/toxicity
- Genes, Reporter
- Humans
- Receptors, Androgen/drug effects
- Receptors, Androgen/genetics
- Receptors, Androgen/metabolism
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/drug effects
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/genetics
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/metabolism
- Receptors, Progesterone/drug effects
- Receptors, Progesterone/genetics
- Receptors, Progesterone/metabolism
- Transcription, Genetic/drug effects
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Celia Fernández-Blanco
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - Caroline Frizzell
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Maeve Shannon
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Maria-Jose Ruiz
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - Lisa Connolly
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Ferrigo D, Raiola A, Causin R. Fusarium Toxins in Cereals: Occurrence, Legislation, Factors Promoting the Appearance and Their Management. Molecules 2016; 21:E627. [PMID: 27187340 PMCID: PMC6274039 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21050627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fusarium diseases of small grain cereals and maize cause significant yield losses worldwide. Fusarium infections result in reduced grain yield and contamination with mycotoxins, some of which have a notable impact on human and animal health. Regulations on maximum limits have been established in various countries to protect consumers from the harmful effects of these mycotoxins. Several factors are involved in Fusarium disease and mycotoxin occurrence and among them environmental factors and the agronomic practices have been shown to deeply affect mycotoxin contamination in the field. In the present review particular emphasis will be placed on how environmental conditions and stress factors for the crops can affect Fusarium infection and mycotoxin production, with the aim to provide useful knowledge to develop strategies to prevent mycotoxin accumulation in cereals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Davide Ferrigo
- Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padua, Campus of Agripolis, Viale Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padua, Italy.
| | - Alessandro Raiola
- Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padua, Campus of Agripolis, Viale Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padua, Italy.
| | - Roberto Causin
- Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padua, Campus of Agripolis, Viale Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padua, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Taevernier L, Veryser L, Roche N, Peremans K, Burvenich C, Delesalle C, De Spiegeleer B. Human skin permeation of emerging mycotoxins (beauvericin and enniatins). JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2016; 26:277-287. [PMID: 25757886 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2015.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/05/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Currently, dermal exposure data of cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins are completely absent. There is a lack of understanding about the local skin and systemic kinetics and effects, despite their widespread skin contact and intrinsic hazard. Therefore, we provide a quantitative characterisation of their dermal kinetics. The emerging mycotoxins enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA) were used as model compounds and their transdermal kinetics were quantitatively evaluated, using intact and damaged human skin in an in vitro Franz diffusion cell set-up and ultra high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC)-MS analytics. We demonstrated that all investigated mycotoxins are able to penetrate through the skin. ENN B showed the highest permeation (kp,v=9.44 × 10(-6) cm/h), whereas BEA showed the lowest (kp,v=2.35 × 10(-6) cm/h) and the other ENNs ranging in between. Combining these values with experimentally determined solubility data, Jmax values ranging from 0.02 to 0.35 μg/(cm(2) h) for intact skin and from 0.07 to 1.11 μg/(cm(2) h) for damaged skin were obtained. These were used to determine the daily dermal exposure (DDE) in a worst-case scenario. On the other hand, DDE's for a typical occupational scenario were calculated based on real-life mycotoxin concentrations for the industrial exposure of food-related workers. In the latter case, for contact with intact human skin, DDE's up to 0.0870 ng/(kg BW × day) for ENN A were calculated, whereas for impaired skin barrier this can even rise up to 0.3209 ng/(kg BW × day) for ENN B1. This knowledge is needed for the risk assessment after skin exposure of contaminated food, feed, indoor surfaces and airborne particles with mycotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lien Taevernier
- Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lieselotte Veryser
- Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Nathalie Roche
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, University Hospital Ghent, De Pintelaan 185, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kathelijne Peremans
- Department of Medical Imaging and Small Animal Orthopaedics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Christian Burvenich
- Department of Comparative Physiology and Biometrics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Catherine Delesalle
- Department of Comparative Physiology and Biometrics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Bart De Spiegeleer
- Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Taevernier L, Wynendaele E, De Vreese L, Burvenich C, De Spiegeleer B. The mycotoxin definition reconsidered towards fungal cyclic depsipeptides. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART C, ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENESIS & ECOTOXICOLOGY REVIEWS 2016; 34:114-135. [PMID: 26963720 DOI: 10.1080/10590501.2016.1164561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Currently, next to the major classes, cyclic depsipeptides beauvericin and enniatins are also positioned as mycotoxins. However, as there are hundreds more fungal cyclic depsipeptides already identified, should these not be considered as mycotoxins as well? The current status of the mycotoxin definition revealed a lack of consistency, leading to confusion about what compounds should be called mycotoxins. Because this is of pivotal importance in risk assessment prioritization, a clear and quantitatively expressed mycotoxin definition is proposed, based on data of widely accepted mycotoxins. Finally, this definition is applied to a set of fungal cyclic depsipeptides, revealing that some of these should indeed be considered as mycotoxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lien Taevernier
- a Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
| | - Evelien Wynendaele
- a Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
| | - Leen De Vreese
- b Centre for Logic and Philosophy of Science, Faculty of Arts and Philosophy, Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
| | - Christian Burvenich
- c Department of Comparative Physiology and Biometrics , Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University , Merelbeke , Belgium
| | - Bart De Spiegeleer
- a Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
|
34
|
Escrivá L, Font G, Manyes L. In vivo toxicity studies of fusarium mycotoxins in the last decade: A review. Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 78:185-206. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Revised: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|
35
|
Chiesi C, Fernandez-Blanco C, Cossignani L, Font G, Ruiz M. Alternariol-induced cytotoxicity in Caco-2 cells. Protective effect of the phenolic fraction from virgin olive oil. Toxicon 2015; 93:103-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.11.230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2014] [Revised: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
36
|
Taevernier L, Veryser L, Vandercruyssen K, D’Hondt M, Vansteelandt S, De Saeger S, De Spiegeleer B. UHPLC-MS/MS method for the determination of the cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins in in vitro transdermal experiments. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2014; 100:50-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2014.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
|
37
|
Scientific Opinion on the risks to human and animal health related to the presence of beauvericin and enniatins in food and feed. EFSA J 2014. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
|
38
|
Disturbance of antioxidant capacity produced by beauvericin in CHO-K1 cells. Toxicol Lett 2014; 226:337-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Revised: 02/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
39
|
Assunção R, Ferreira M, Martins C, Diaz I, Padilla B, Dupont D, Bragança M, Alvito P. Applicability of in vitro methods to study patulin bioaccessibility and its effects on intestinal membrane integrity. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2014; 77:983-992. [PMID: 25072729 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2014.911138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In human health risk assessment, ingestion of food is considered a major route of exposure to many contaminants, although the total amount of an ingested contaminant (external dose) does not always reflect the quantity available for the body (internal dose). In this study, two in vitro methods were applied to study bioaccessibility and intestinal membrane integrity of cells exposed to patulin, a mycotoxin with significant public health risk. Seven artificially contaminated fruit juices were assayed in the presence or absence of a standard meal, showing a significant difference for bioaccessibility values between contaminated samples alone (mean 27.65 ± 13.50%) and combinations with a standard meal (mean 7.89 ± 4.03%). Different concentrations of patulin (PAT) and cysteine (CYS) (protector agent) were assayed in Caco-2 cells monolayers. At 95 μM, PAT produced a marked decrease in transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER). This effect was significantly reduced when 400 μM and 4000 μM CYS was added to the cells. Combined use of in vitro digestion models with other techniques using intestinal cell lines, such as in vitro intestinal absorption models that use Caco-2 cells, may offer a more comprehensive model of what is occurring during digestion and absorption processes. The study of beneficial effects of protective agents would also be enhanced.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Assunção
- a Food and Nutrition Department , National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge I.P. , Lisboa , Portugal
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
González-Arias C, Marín S, Sanchis V, Ramos A. Mycotoxin bioaccessibility/absorption assessment using in vitro digestion models: a review. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2013. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2012.1521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In the evaluation of the oral bioavailability of a mycotoxin, the first step is the determination of its bioaccessibility, i.e. the percentage of mycotoxin released from the food matrix during digestion in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract that could be absorbed through the intestinal epithelium. Different in vitro digestion models have been recently used for determination of bioaccessibility, thereby avoiding the use of more complex cell culture techniques or the use of animals in expensive in vivo experiments. In vitro methods offer an appealing alternative to human and animal studies. They usually are rapid, simple and reasonably low in cost, and can be used to perform simplified experiments under uniform and well-controlled conditions, providing insights not achievable in whole animal studies. The available in vitro methods for GI simulation differ in the design of the system, the composition of the physiological juices assayed, as well as in the use or not of intestinal microbiota. There are models that only simulate the upper part of the GI tract (mouth-stomach-small intestine), whereas other methods include the large intestine, so that the model chosen could have some influence on the bioaccessibility data obtained. Bioaccessibility depends on the food matrix, as well as on the contamination level and the way the food/feed is contaminated (spiked or naturally). This review focuses on the currently available data regarding in vitro digestion models for the study of the bioaccessibility or absorption of mycotoxins, detailing the characteristics of each digestion step and the importance of the physiological juices employed during digestion. The effect that different factors play on mycotoxin release from the food matrix in the GI tract is also considered, and existing data on bioaccessibility of the main mycotoxins are given.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C.A. González-Arias
- Food Technology Department, Lleida University, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
| | - S. Marín
- Food Technology Department, Lleida University, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
| | - V. Sanchis
- Food Technology Department, Lleida University, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
| | - A.J. Ramos
- Food Technology Department, Lleida University, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
| |
Collapse
|