Multiple mycotoxin exposure of infants and young children via breastfeeding and complementary/weaning foods consumption in Ecuadorian highlands

Occurrence, evaluation, and human health risk assessment of ochratoxin a in infant formula and cereal-based baby food: a global literature systematic review

This study reviews global levels of ochratoxin A (OTA) in infant formula and cereal-based foods, using Monte Carlo simulation to assess risks. The review found 24 studies on global OTA levels in infant food and cereal-based products, using databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and Embase until March 2024. We estimated OTA exposure in infant food based on concentration, intake and body weight. The exposure and hazard quotient margin were calculated using BMDL10 and TDI values. Monte Carlo simulation evaluated human health risks from OTA in infant formula and cereal-based foods. A global study from 14 countries shows varying levels, surpassing EU limits in Tunisia, Ecuador, the USA, and generally in Africa, notably in infant cereals, which had higher levels than formula. Globally, OTA was present in 29.3% of the 3348 samples analyzed, with Lebanon at 95.2% and Brazil at 0%. Analysis indicates only non-carcinogenic risk for infants. While health risks for infants are mostly low, ongoing research and monitoring are vital to minimize OTA exposure in infant food.

Addressing the Concern of Orange-Yellow Fungus Growth on Palm Kernel Cake: Safeguarding Dairy Cattle Diets for Mycotoxin-Producing Fungi

Palm kernel cake (PKC), a byproduct of palm oil extraction, serves an important role in Ecuador's animal feed industry. The emergence of yellow-orange fungal growth in PKC on some cattle farms in Ecuador sparked concerns within the cattle industry regarding a potential mycotoxin-producing fungus on this substrate. Due to the limited availability of analytical chemistry techniques in Ecuador for mycotoxin detection, we chose to isolate and identify the fungus to determine its association with mycotoxin-producing genera. Through molecular identification via ITS region sequencing, we identified the yellow-orange fungus as the yeast Candida ethanolica. Furthermore, we isolated two other fungi-the yeast Pichia kudriavzevii, and the fungus Geotrichum candidum. Molecular identification confirmed that all three species are not classified as mycotoxin-producing fungi but in contrast, the literature indicates that all three have demonstrated antifungal activity against Aspergillus and Penicillium species, genera associated with mycotoxin production. This suggests their potential use in biocontrol to counter the colonization of harmful fungi. We discuss preventive measures against the fungal invasion of PKC and emphasize the importance of promptly identifying fungi on this substrate. Rapid recognition of mycotoxin-producing and pathogenic genera holds the promise of mitigating cattle intoxication and the dissemination of mycotoxins throughout the food chain.

Transgenerational toxicity induced by maternal AFB1 exposure in Caenorhabditis elegans associated with underlying epigenetic regulations

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), usually seriously contaminates in grain and oil foods or feed, displayed significant acute and chronic toxic effects in human and animal populations. However, little is known about the transgenerational toxic effects induced by a maternal AFB1 intake at a lower dose on offspring. In our study, only parental wild-type Caenorhabditis elegans was exposed to AFB1 (0-8 μg/ml) and the following three filial generations were grown on AFB1-free NGM. Results showed that the toxic effects of AFB1 on the growth (body length) and reproduction (brood size, generation time and morphology of gonad arm) can be transmitted through generations. Moreover, the levels of MMP and ATP were irreversibly inhibited in the filial generations. By using RNomics and molecular biology techniques, we found that steroid biosynthesis, phagosome, valine/leucine/isoleucine biosynthesis and oxidative phosphorylation (p < 0.05) were the core signaling pathways to exert the transgenerational toxic effects on nematodes. Also, notably increased histone methylation level at H3K36me3 was observed in the first generation. Taken together, our study demonstrated that AFB1 has notable transgenerational toxic effects, which were resulted from the complex regulatory network of various miRNAs, mRNAs and epigenetic modification in C. elegans.

Biomonitoring of Dietary Mycotoxin Exposure and Associated Impact on the Gut Microbiome in Nigerian Infants

Mycotoxins are toxic chemicals that adversely affect human health. Here, we assessed the influence of mycotoxin exposure on the longitudinal development of early life intestinal microbiota of Nigerian neonates and infants (NIs). Human biomonitoring assays based on liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry were applied to quantify mycotoxins in breast milk (n = 68) consumed by the NIs, their stool (n = 82), and urine samples (n = 15), which were collected longitudinally from month 1-18 postdelivery. Microbial community composition was characterized by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing of stool samples and was correlated to mycotoxin exposure patterns. Fumonisin B1 (FB1), FB2, and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) were frequently quantified in stool samples between months 6 and 18. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), AME, and citrinin were quantified in breast milk samples at low concentrations. AFM1, FB1, and ochratoxin A were quantified in urine samples at relatively high concentrations. Klebsiella and Escherichia/Shigella were dominant in very early life stool samples (month 1), whereas Bifidobacterium was dominant between months 3 and 6. The total mycotoxin levels in stool were significantly associated with NIs' gut microbiome composition (PERMANOVA, p < 0.05). However, no significant correlation was observed between specific microbiota and the detection of certain mycotoxins. Albeit a small cohort, this study demonstrates that mycotoxins may influence early life gut microbiome composition.

Mycotoxins Exposure of Lactating Women and Its Relationship with Dietary and Pre/Post-Harvest Practices in Rural Ethiopia

Mycotoxins can be transferred to breast milk during lactation. Hence, the presence of multiple mycotoxins (aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1, alpha and beta zearalanol, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins B1, B2, B3, and hydrolyzed B1, nivalenol, ochratoxin A, ochratoxin alpha, and zearalenone) in breast milk samples was assessed in our study. Furthermore, the relationship between total fumonisins and pre/post-harvest and the women's dietary practices was examined. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was used to analyze the 16 mycotoxins. An adjusted censored regression model was fitted to identify predictors of mycotoxins, i.e., total fumonisins. We detected only fumonisin B2 (15% of the samples) and fumonisin B3 (9% of the samples) while fumonisin B1 and nivalenol were detected only in a single breast milk sample. No association between total fumonisins and pre/post-harvest and dietary practices was found (p < 0.05). The overall exposure to mycotoxins was low in the studied women, although fumonisins contamination was not negligible. Moreover, the recorded total fumonisins was not associated with any of the pre/post-harvest and dietary practices. Therefore, to better identify predictors of fumonisin contamination in breast milk, longitudinal studies with food samples in addition to breast milk samples and with larger sample sizes are needed for the future.

Mycoviruses in Fungi: Carcinogenesis of Fungal Agents May Not Always Be Mycotoxin Related

Certain viruses have been found to induce diverse biological pathways to carcinogenesis, evidenced by the presence of viral gene products in some tumors. Despite the fact that many fungal agents contain mycoviruses, until recently, their possible direct effects on human health, including carcinogenesis and leukemogenesis, had not been explored. In this regard, most studies of fungal agents have rightly concentrated on their mycotoxin formation and effects. Recently, the direct role of yeasts and fungi in the etiology of cancers, including leukemia, have been investigated. While greater attention has been placed on the carcinogenic effects of Candida, the role of filamentous fungi in carcinogenesis has also been explored. Recent findings from studies using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique indicate that the plasma of patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) uniformly contains antibodies for a certain mycovirus-containing Aspergillus flavus, while controls are negative. The exposure of mononuclear leukocytes from patients with ALL in full remission, and long-term survivors, to the product of this organism was reported to result in the re-development of typical genetics and cell surface phenotypes characteristic of active ALL. Mycoviruses are known to be able to significantly alter the biological characteristics and functions of their host. The possible carcinogenic and leukemogenic role of mycoviruses, with and without their host, needs to be further investigated.

Human Breast Milk Contamination with Aflatoxins, Impact on Children's Health, and Possible Control Means: A Review

Aflatoxins are natural toxicants produced mainly by species of the Aspergillus genus, which contaminate virtually all feeds and foods. Apart from their deleterious health effects on humans and animals, they can be secreted unmodified or carried over into the milk of lactating females, thereby posing health risks to suckling babies. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is the major and most toxic aflatoxin type after aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). It contaminates human breast milk upon direct ingestion from dairy products or by carry-over from the parent molecule (AFB1), which is hydroxylated in the liver and possibly in the mammary glands by cytochrome oxidase enzymes and then excreted into breast milk as AFM1 during lactation via the mammary alveolar epithelial cells. This puts suckling infants and children fed on this milk at a high risk, especially that their detoxifying activities are still weak at this age essentially due to immature liver as the main organ responsible for the detoxification of xenobiotics. The occurrence of AFM1 at toxic levels in human breast milk and associated health conditions in nursing children is well documented, with developing countries being the most affected. Different studies have demonstrated that contamination of human breast milk with AFM1 represents a real public health issue, which should be promptly and properly addressed to reduce its incidence. To this end, different actions have been suggested, including a wider and proper implementation of regulatory measures, not only for breast milk but also for foods and feeds as the upstream sources for breast milk contamination with AFM1. The promotion of awareness of lactating mothers through the organization of training sessions and mass media disclosures before and after parturition is of a paramount importance for the success of any action. This is especially relevant that there are no possible control measures to ensure compliance of lactating mothers to specific regulatory measures, which can yet be appropriate for the expansion of breast milk banks in industrialized countries and emergence of breast milk sellers. This review attempted to revisit the public health issues raised by mother milk contamination with AFM1, which remains undermined despite the numerous relevant publications highlighting the needs to tackle its incidence as a protective measure for the children physical and mental health.

Constitutively active microglial populations limit anorexia induced by the food contaminant deoxynivalenol

Microglia are involved in neuroinflammatory processes during diverse pathophysiological conditions. To date, the possible contribution of these cells to deoxynivalenol (DON)-induced brain inflammation and anorexia has not yet been evaluated. DON, one of the most abundant trichothecenes found in cereals, has been implicated in mycotoxicosis in both humans and farm animals. DON-induced toxicity is characterized by reduced food intake, weight gain, and immunological effects. We previously showed that exposure to DON induces an inflammatory response within the hypothalamus and dorsal vagal complex (DVC) which contributes to DON-induced anorexia. Here, in response to anorectic DON doses, we reported microglial activation within two circumventricular organs (CVOs), the area postrema (AP) and median eminence (ME) located in the DVC and the hypothalamus, respectively. Interestingly, this microglial activation was observed while DON-induced anorexia was ongoing (i.e., 3 and 6 h after DON administration). Next, we took advantage of pharmacological microglia deletion using PLX3397, a colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R)-inhibitor. Surprisingly, microglia-depleted mice exhibited an increased sensitivity to DON since non-anorectic DON doses reduced food intake in PLX3397-treated mice. Moreover, low DON doses induced c-Fos expression within feeding behavior-associated structures in PLX3397-treated mice but not in control mice. In parallel, we have highlighted heterogeneity in the phenotype of microglial cells present in and around the AP and ME of control animals. In these areas, microglial subpopulations expressed IBA1, TMEM119, CD11b and CD68 to varying degrees. In addition, a CD68 positive subpopulation showed, under resting conditions, a noticeable phagocytotic/endocytotic activity. We observed that DON strongly reduced CD68 in the hypothalamus and DVC. Finally, inactivation of constitutively active microglia by intraperitoneal administration of minocycline resulted in anorexia with a DON dose ineffective in control mice. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that various populations of microglial cells residing in and around the CVOs are maintained in a functionally active state even under physiological conditions. We propose that these microglial cell populations are attempting to protect the brain parenchyma from hazardous molecules coming from the blood. This study could contribute to a better understanding of how microglia respond to environmental contaminants.

Influence of season and lactational stage on aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A in human milk in a cohort study from southeastern region of Turkey

The aim was to evaluate the changes in aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) levels in human breast milk (HBM) during the first five postpartum months according to the sampling season in a cohort study from Şanlıurfa. From 78 healthy lactating mothers, HBM was taken at the 5-14 days postpartum (D5-14) and the 6^th and 18^th weeks postpartum (W6 and W18). Mycotoxin levels were analyzed with competitive ELISA. Generalized Estimating Equations with repeated measures (three-correlation matrix dimension) revealed a significantly higher mean AFM1 level at W6 than that on D5-14. AFM1 and OTA levels in winter and spring were considerably higher than that in summer and autumn. Maternal smoke exposure, body mass index, history of moldy food exposure, birth order, and breastfeeding type did not influence the results. Whilst season had a marked effect on the milk levels of both analytes, lactation stage affected AFM1 more notable than OTA.

Probabilistic Health Risk Assessment of Trace Elements in Baby Food and Milk Powder Using ICP-OES Method

This study was conducted to evaluate the concentration and health risk of trace elements in milk powder and baby food samples marketed in Iran using inductive couple plasma/optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) method. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were ranged from 1.80 × 10^-5 to 2.17 × 10^-3 and 6.00 × 10^-5 to 7.22 × 10^-3 mg/kg, respectively, with recoveries ranged from 92 to 105%. Zinc (Zn) was found in a high mean concentration (8.49 × 10^-1 ± 3.93 × 10^-2 mg/kg) in milk powder, and iron (Fe) was found in the highest mean concentration (2.04 ± 3.61 × 10^-2 mg/kg) in baby food. The Monte Carlo simulation results for the infants revealed that the rank order of the hazard quotient (HQ) index was mercury (Hg) > nickel (Ni) > arsenic (As) > cadmium (Cd) > aluminum (Al). Further, the result of non-carcinogenic and probability of carcinogenic risk was lower than the limits of safe risk (HQ > 1 and cancer risk (CR) > 1 × 10^-4). In conclusion, the toxic elements content in the tested products was sufficiently low, and all of the milk powder and baby food sold in Iran could be considered safe for infants and children.

Mycotoxins Exposure in Cabinda, Angola—A Pilot Biomonitoring Survey of Breastmilk

Breast milk is considered the ideal form of nutrition for newborns and infants. However, it can carry over contaminants, namely mycotoxins, with biological effects to which this population is particularly vulnerable. Human biomonitoring and surveillance programs are particularly scarce in low-income countries, where food security is a more urgent priority in comparison with food safety. This pilot survey aims to assess exposure of breastfed infants to aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A (OTA) in Angola, and to evaluate the main socio-demographical and food consumption determinants of lactating mothers. All 37 breast milk samples analyzed are found to be contaminated with ZEN and OTA, although none are found contaminated with AFM1. Contamination levels are lower than previously reported for ZEN but higher in the case of OTA. A significant association between ZEN levels in breast milk and the consumption of cookies by the lactating mothers is found. As for OTA, higher levels are observed in the milk from mothers with younger infants, for which high estimated daily intake (EDI) is determined. As far as the authors are aware, this is the first survey of the occurrence of mycotoxins in breast milk in Angola, so further human biomonitoring works should follow, given that mycotoxins are a global health issue that directly impact the health of populations.

Levels of Aflatoxin M1 in Breast Milk of Lactating Mothers in Monterrey, Mexico: Exposure and Health Risk Assessment of Newborns

The present study aimed to determine the presence of the aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in breast milk samples from 123 nursing women and the degree of exposure of infants to this toxin, in the metropolitan area of Monterrey, Nuevo Leon state (northeast Mexico). Upon analysis, 100% of the samples were found to be contaminated with the toxin at an average concentration of 17.04 ng/L, with a range of 5.00 to 66.23 ng/L. A total of 13.01% of the breast milk samples exceeded the regulatory limit of 25 ng/L for AFM1 concentration, set by the European Union. The estimated daily intake for AFM1 and the carcinogenic risk index were also determined in the 0- to 6-, 7- to 12-, 13- to 24-, and 25- to 36-month-old age groups. The AFM1 intake through breast milk ranged from 1.09 to 20.17 ng/kg weight/day, and was higher than the tolerable daily intake, indicating a carcinogenic risk for infants in the age groups of 0- to 24-months old. This evidence demonstrates a susceptibility of breast milk to AFM1 contamination that may suggest a carcinogenic risk for the breastfed infants in Monterrey city, Nuevo Leon state, and the need to control the presence of aflatoxins in foods eaten by nursing mothers.

Mycotoxin Exposure during the First 1000 Days of Life and Its Impact on Children’s Health: A Clinical Overview

The first 1000 days of life are very sensitive to any event that alters health programming, and they represent a window for intervention to improve population health. Pregnant women, fetuses, and infants are particularly vulnerable to exposure to food contaminated with mycotoxins. This review aimed to gather data from the literature on mycotoxins exposure during intrauterine life and early childhood, and associated health risks, as assessed through human biomonitoring and mycotoxins occurrence in foods, in different continents. Maternal internal exposure to aflatoxins is associated with fetal growth restriction, while exposure to fumonisins increases the risk of offspring’s neural tube defects. Mycotoxin contamination of breast milk is reported worldwide, but data on adverse effects of the lactational transfer of mycotoxins on infant health are lacking. Young children are exposed to mycotoxins through contaminated infant formulas and baby foods. Both external and internal exposure to aflatoxins and fumonisins in children are reported to be associated with growth impairment. In low-income settings, where other co-factors can affect growth, this association should be interpreted with caution. Further studies on human biomonitoring of mother–infant pairs and young children are needed to guide management strategies aiming to minimize mycotoxin exposure at critical developmental stages.

Mycotoxin exposure biomonitoring in breastfed and non-exclusively breastfed Nigerian children

A multi-specimen, multi-mycotoxin approach involving ultra-sensitive LC-MS/MS analysis of breast milk, complementary food and urine was applied to examine mycotoxin co-exposure in 65 infants, aged 1-18 months, in Ogun state, Nigeria. Aflatoxin M₁ was detected in breast milk (4/22 (18%)), while six other classes of mycotoxins were quantified; including dihydrocitrinone (6/22 (27%); range: 14.0-59.7 ng/L) and sterigmatocystin (1/22 (5%); 1.2 ng/L) detected for the first time. Seven distinct classes of mycotoxins including aflatoxins (9/42 (21%); range: 1.0-16.2 µg/kg) and fumonisins (12/42 (29%); range: 7.9-194 µg/kg) contaminated complementary food. Mycotoxins covering seven distinct classes with diverse structures and modes of action were detected in 64/65 (99%) of the urine samples, demonstrating ubiquitous exposure. Two aflatoxin metabolites (AFM₁ and AFQ₁) and FB₁ were detected in 6/65 (9%), 44/65 (68%) and 17/65 (26%) of urine samples, respectively. Mixtures of mycotoxin classes were common, including 22/22 (100%), 14/42 (33%) and 56/65 (86%) samples having 2-6, 2-4, or 2-6 mycotoxins present, for breast milk, complementary food and urine, respectively. Aflatoxin and/or fumonisin was detected in 4/22 (18%), 12/42 (29%) and 46/65 (71%) for breast milk, complimentary foods and urine, respectively. Furthermore, the detection frequency, median concentrations and occurrence of mixtures were typically greater in urine of non-exclusively breastfed compared to exclusively breastfed infants. The study provides novel insights into mycotoxin co-exposures in early-life. Albeit a small sample set, it highlights transition to higher levels of infant mycotoxin exposure as complementary foods are introduced, providing impetus to mitigate during this critical early-life period and encourage breastfeeding.

Survey of Freshly Harvested Oat Grains from Southern Brazil Reveals High Incidence of Type B Trichothecenes and Associated Fusarium Species

The current study investigated the fungal diversity in freshly harvested oat samples from the two largest production regions in Brazil, Paraná (PR) and Rio Grande do Sul (RS), focusing primarily on the Fusarium genus and the presence of type B trichothecenes. The majority of the isolates belonged to the Fusarium sambucinum species complex, and were identified as F. graminearum sensu stricto (s.s.), F. meridionale, and F. poae. In the RS region, F. poae was the most frequent fungus, while F. graminearum s.s. was the most frequent in the PR region. The F. graminearum s.s. isolates were 15-ADON genotype, while F. meridionale and F. poae were NIV genotype. Mycotoxin analysis revealed that 92% and 100% of the samples from PR and RS were contaminated with type B trichothecenes, respectively. Oat grains from PR were predominantly contaminated with DON, whereas NIV was predominant in oats from RS. Twenty-four percent of the samples were contaminated with DON at levels higher than Brazilian regulations. Co-contamination of DON, its derivatives, and NIV was observed in 84% and 57.7% of the samples from PR and RS, respectively. The results provide new information on Fusarium contamination in Brazilian oats, highlighting the importance of further studies on mycotoxins.

Urinary Biomarkers of Mycotoxin Induced Nephrotoxicity-Current Status and Expected Future Trends

The intensifying world-wide spread of mycotoxigenic fungal species has increased the possibility of mycotoxin contamination in animal feed and the human food chain. Growing evidence shows the deleterious toxicological effects of mycotoxins from infants to adults, while large population-based screening programs are often missing to identify affected individuals. The kidney functions as the major excretory system, which makes it particularly vulnerable to nephrotoxic injury. However, few studies have attempted to screen for kidney injury biomarkers in large, mycotoxin-exposed populations. As a result, there is an urgent need to screen them with sensitive biomarkers for potential nephrotoxicity. Although a plethora of biomarkers have been tested to estimate the harmful effects of a wide spectrum of toxicants, β₂-microglobulin (β₂-MG) and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) are currently the dominant biomarkers employed routinely in environmental toxicology research. Nevertheless, kidney injury molecule 1 (KIM-1) and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) are also emerging as useful and informative markers to reveal mycotoxin induced nephrotoxicity. In this opinion article we consider the nephrotoxic effects of mycotoxins, the biomarkers available to detect and quantify the kidney injuries caused by them, and to recommend biomarkers to screen mycotoxin-exposed populations for renal damage.

Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Dietary Exposure to Deoxynivalenol in Wheat-Based Products Based Different Wheat-Producing Area for the Inhabitants in Shanghai, China

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the major mycotoxins that contaminate cereals. In this study, we determined the DON level in wheat-based products from Chinese five main production areas collected in Shanghai and calculated the daily intake of DON for inhabitants using the point evaluation and the probabilistic evaluation based on Monte Carlo simulation. The results showed the positive rates of DON in the products were higher than 80.0%, with the concentrations ranging from 41.8 to 1110 µg/kg. The estimated mean daily intakes of DON for 7- to 10-year-old children and adults groups were below 1 µg/kg bw/day, the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), suggesting no health risks for the consumers. However, the 99th percentiles of dietary DON exposures for children and adults exceeded the PMTDI, indicating adverse health effects might occur if the two groups intake highly contaminated wheat-based products. The potential health risks for the two groups exposed to DON in the wheat-based products from the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley (MLYV) were higher than those from the other areas in China.

Evaluation of Mycotoxins in Infant Breast Milk and Infant Food, Reviewing the Literature Data

In this review, an analysis focusing on mycotoxin determination in infant breast milk and infant food has been summarised for the last fifteen years of research focused on the intended population group of 1-9 months. The objective was to know the level of exposure of the child population to an estimated daily intake (EDI) of mycotoxins from the consumption of habitual foods. The EDI was compared with the tolerable daily intake (TDI) established by EFSA to estimate risk. In breast milk, the high prevalence and levels were for samples from Africa (Egypt and Tanzania) with aflatoxin M1 (1.9 μg/L and 10%), and Asia (Iran) with ochratoxin-A (7.3 μg/L and 100%). In infant formulas, high incidences and values were for samples with aflatoxin M1 from Burkina Faso (167 samples, 84%, 87 μg/kg). In cereal products, the highest incidence was for DON from the United States (96 samples), and the highest value was an Italian sample (0.83 μg/kg of enniatin B). In fruit products, patulin was the most detected in Italian (78) and Spanish (24) samples. The highest risk was observed in breast milk during the first month of age, the highest EDI for aflatoxin M1 was reported for Egypt (344-595 ng/kg bw/day) and ochratoxin-A for Iran (97-167ng/kg bw/day), representing a public health problem.

Mycotoxin occurrence in breast milk and exposure estimation of lactating mothers using urinary biomarkers in São Paulo, Brazil

In this study, the occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN) and some of their metabolites were assessed in breast milk and urine of lactating women (N = 74) from Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil. Exposure estimations through urinary mycotoxin biomarkers was also performed. Samples were collected in four sampling times (May and August 2018, February and July 2019) and analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) was not detected in breast milk. However, two samples (3%) presented FB₁ at 2200 and 3400 ng/L, while 4 samples (5%) had OTA at the median level of 360 ng/L. In urine, AFM₁ and aflatoxin P₁ (AFP₁) were found in 51 and 11% of samples, respectively (median levels: 0.16 and 0.07 ng/mg creatinine, respectively). Urinary DON (median level: 38.59 ng/mg creatinine), OTA (median level: 2.38 ng/mg creatinine) and ZEN (median level: 0.02 ng/mg of creatinine) were quantified in 18, 8 and 10% of the samples, respectively. Mean probable daily intake (PDI) values based on urinary biomarkers were 1.58, 1.09, 5.07, and 0.05 μg/kg body weight/day for AFM₁, DON, OTA, and ZEN, respectively. Although a low mycotoxin occurrence was detected in breast milk, the PDI for the genotoxic AFs was much higher than those reported previously in Brazil, while PDI values obtained for OTA and DON were higher than recommended tolerable daily intakes. These outcomes warrant concern on the exposure of lactating women to these mycotoxins in the studied area.

Risk of dietary and breastmilk exposure to mycotoxins among lactating women and infants 2-4 months in northern India

Mycotoxins are carcinogenic secondary metabolites of fungi that have been linked to infant growth faltering. In this study, we quantified co-occurring mycotoxins in breast milk and food samples from Haryana, India, and characterized determinants of exposure. Deterministic risk assessment was conducted for mothers and infants. We examined levels of eight mycotoxins (Aflatoxin B1 , B2 , G1 , G2 , M1 , M2 ; Ochratoxin A, B) in 100 breast milk samples (infants 2-4 months) using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ), fumonisin B1 (FB1 ) and deoxynivalenol (DON) were detected in several food items (n = 298) using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. We report novel data on the presence of mycotoxins in breast milk samples from India. Whereas breast milk concentrations (AFM1 median: 13.7; range: 3.9-1200 ng/L) remain low, AFM1 was detected above regulatory limits in 27% of animal milk samples. Additionally, 41% of infants were above provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) limits for AFM1 due to consumption of breast milk (mean: 3.04, range: 0.26-80.7 ng kg-1 bw day-1 ). Maternal consumption of breads (p < 0.05) was associated with breast milk AFM1 exposure. AFB1 (μg/kg) was detected in dried red chilies (15.7; 0-302.3), flour (3.13; 0-214.9), groundnuts (0; 0-249.1), maize (56.0; 0-836.7), pearl millet (1.85; 0-160.2), rice (0; 0-195.6), wheat (1.9; 0-196.0) and sorghum (0; 0-63.5). FB1 (mg/kg) was detected in maize (0; 0-61.4), pearl millet (0; 0-35.4) and sorghum (0.95; 0-33.2). DON was not detected in food samples. Mothers in our study exceeded PMTDI recommendations for AFB1 due to consumption of rice and flour (mean: 75.81; range: 35.2-318.2 ng kg-1 bw day-1 ). Our findings show the presence of Aflatoxin B1 and M1 at various levels of the food chain and in breast milk, with estimated intakes exceeding PMTDI recommendations. Aflatoxins are known carcinogens and have also been linked to stunting in children. Their presence across the food system and in breast milk is concerning, thus warranting further research to replicate and expand on our findings and to understand implications for maternal and child health.

The food contaminant deoxynivalenol provokes metabolic impairments resulting in non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL) in mice

The ribotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is a trichothecene found on cereals responsible for mycotoxicosis in both humans and farm animals. DON toxicity is characterized by reduced food intake, diminished nutritional efficiency and immunologic effects. The present study was designed to further characterize the alterations in energy metabolism induced by DON intoxication. We demonstrated that acute DON intoxication triggered liver steatosis associated with an altered expression of genes related to lipids oxidation, lipogenesis and lipolysis. This steatosis was concomitant to anorexia, hypoglycemia and a paradoxical transient insulin release. DON treatment resulted also in stimulation of central autonomic network regulating sympathetic outflow and adrenaline and glucocorticoids secretion. Furthermore, an increased expression of genes linked to inflammation and reticulum endoplasmic stress was observed in the liver of DON-treated mice. Finally, we propose that lipids mobilization from adipose tissues (AT) induced by DON intoxication drives hepatic steatosis since (1) genes encoding lipolytic enzymes were up-regulated in AT and (2) plasma concentration of triglycerides (TGs) and non-esterified fatty acids were increased during DON intoxication. Altogether, these data demonstrate that DON induced hormonal and metabolic dysregulations associated with a spectrum of hepatic abnormalities, evocative of a non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Deoxynivalenol: toxicological profiles and perspective views for future research

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a secondary metabolite mainly produced by the fungi Fusarium in agricultural crops, widely existing in feeds and cereal-based foodstuffs. Because of the high occurrence and potentials to induce a variety of toxic effects on animals and humans, DON has been a very harmful exogenous dietary toxicant threating public health. The focus of this review is to summarise the DON-induced broad spectrum of adverse health effects, to probe the current state of knowledge of combined toxicity of DON with other mycotoxins and its derivatives, and to put forward prospective ideas that multi-generational toxicity of DON and its overall impacts on intestinal-immuno-neuroendocrine system could receive more attention in future investigations. The general aim is to provide a scientific basis for the necessity to re-consider risk-assessment and regulations.

Restricting mycotoxins without killing the producers: a new paradigm in nano-fungal interactions

Over the past several years, numerous studies have demonstrated the feasibility of using engineered nanoparticles as antifungals, especially against those fungal pathogens that produce mycotoxins and infect plants, animals, and humans. The high dosage of nanoparticles has been a concern in such antifungal applications due to the potential toxicological and ecotoxicological impacts. To address such concerns, we have recently introduced the idea of inhibiting mycotoxin biosynthesis using low doses of engineered nanoparticles. At such low doses these particles are minimally toxic to humans and the environment. From our studies we realize that for the effective use of nanotechnology to intervene in the biology of fungal pathogens and for an accurate evaluation of the impacts of the increasingly growing nanomaterials in the environment on fungi and their interacting biotic partners, there is a pressing need for a rigorous understanding of nano-fungal interactions, which is currently far from complete. In this minireview, we build on the available evidence from nano-bio interaction research and our recent interaction studies with Aspergillus cells and engineered silver nanoparticles to introduce a potential theoretical model for nano-fungal interactions. The aim of the proposed model is to provide an initial insight on how nanoparticle uptake and their transformation inside fungal cells, possibly influence the production of mycotoxins and other secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi .

Toxicological and Medical Aspects of Aspergillus-Derived Mycotoxins Entering the Feed and Food Chain

Due to Earth's changing climate, the ongoing and foreseeable spreading of mycotoxigenic Aspergillus species has increased the possibility of mycotoxin contamination in the feed and food production chain. These harmful mycotoxins have aroused serious health and economic problems since their first appearance. The most potent Aspergillus-derived mycotoxins include aflatoxins, ochratoxins, gliotoxin, fumonisins, sterigmatocystin, and patulin. Some of them can be found in dairy products, mainly in milk and cheese, as well as in fresh and especially in dried fruits and vegetables, in nut products, typically in groundnuts, in oil seeds, in coffee beans, in different grain products, like rice, wheat, barley, rye, and frequently in maize and, furthermore, even in the liver of livestock fed by mycotoxin-contaminated forage. Though the mycotoxins present in the feed and food chain are well documented, the human physiological effects of mycotoxin exposure are not yet fully understood. It is known that mycotoxins have nephrotoxic, genotoxic, teratogenic, carcinogenic, and cytotoxic properties and, as a consequence, these toxins may cause liver carcinomas, renal dysfunctions, and also immunosuppressed states. The deleterious physiological effects of mycotoxins on humans are still a first-priority question. In food production and also in the case of acute and chronic poisoning, there are possibilities to set suitable food safety measures into operation to minimize the effects of mycotoxin contaminations. On the other hand, preventive actions are always better, due to the multivariate nature of mycotoxin exposures. In this review, the occurrence and toxicological features of major Aspergillus-derived mycotoxins are summarized and, furthermore, the possibilities of treatments in the medical practice to heal the deleterious consequences of acute and/or chronic exposures are presented.

Occurrence of mycotoxins in rice consumed by Iranians: a probabilistic assessment of risk to health

Risks based on cancer and non-cancer endpoints, to Iranians from exposure to several mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin, deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin) following consumption of rice were evaluated. Point estimates of hazard were made for each mycotoxin and a hazard index (HI) and probabilistic estimates were based on results of Monte Carlo Simulations (MCS). All known 17 peer-reviewed studies, published in databases included in Science Direct, PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science, as well as grey literature published in Google Scholar from 2008 to 2017 were considered. The 95^th and 50^th centiles of Hazard Index (HI) in Iranians due to ingestion of rice were estimated to be 2.5 and 0.5, respectively. The 95^th and 50^th centiles of people with positive surface antigens for hepatitis B (HBsAg+) risk characterisation for AFB₁ in Iranian consumers of rice were 81 and 79.1, respectively. The 95^th and 50^th centiles for risks of Iranians negative for the surface antigen of hepatitis B HBsAg (HBsAg-) were 4.4 and 2.6, respectively. Based on results of the MCS for risks to cancer effects, the 95^th and 50^th centiles of margins of exposure (MOE) were 233 and 231, respectively. Therefore, it is recommended to update agricultural approaches and storage methods and implement monitoring and regulations based on risks to health posed by consumption of rice by the Iranian population.

Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides Interaction: Modeling the Impact on Mycotoxin Production

The influence of climate change on agricultural systems has been generally accepted as having a considerable impact on food security and safety. It is believed that the occurrence of mycotoxins will be greatly affected by future climate scenarios and this has been confirmed by recent data. Temperature (T) and CO2 increases, variation in rain intensity and distribution, as well as extreme weather events, affect the dominant fungal species in different ways, depending on their ecological needs. Therefore, the aim of this work was to study Aspergillus flavus (Af) and Fusarium verticillioides (Fv) co-occurrence in vitro in order to collect quantitative data on the effect of fungal interaction on growth and mycotoxin production and develop functions for their description. Experimental trials were organized with the cited fungi grown alone or together. They were incubated at different T regimes (10-40°C, step 5°C) for 21 days. Fungal growth was measured weekly, while AFs and FBs were quantified at the end of the incubation period. Temperature and incubation time significantly affected fungal growth both for Af and Fv (p ≤ 0.01), and a significant interaction between T and the presence of one versus both fungi influenced the amount of AFs and FBs produced. Each fungus was affected by the presence of the other fungus; in particular, Af and Fv showed a decrease in colony diameter of 10 and 44%, respectively, when they were grown together, compared to alone. The same influence was not found for mycotoxin production. In fact, the dynamics of toxin production in different temperature regimes followed a comparable trend with fungi grown alone or together, but a significant impact of inoculum × temperature interaction was highlighted. Fungal growth and toxin production in different T regimes were well described, both for AFs and FBs, by a Bete function. These results are the first attempt to model mycotoxigenic fungal co-occurrence under several T regimes; this is essential in order to improve effective prediction of growth and mycotoxin production by such fungi.

OPTIMIZATION OF PRODUCTION PROCESS OF PEELED GRAINS OF WHEAT OF DIFFERENT SOLIDITY

Wheat is a leading agricultural plant with one of most gross grain harvest in the world. It is a valuable raw material for producing the wide assortment of food products. That is why little studied peculiarities of it need specification, and processing technologies – improvement. The aim of the conducted studies was in specifying of processing regimes of solid and soft wheat grains into peeled ones that allowed to choose rational regimes of water-thermal processing for attaining their maximal output, boiling coefficient and decrease of a preparation duration. It was proved, that the effect of heat and moisture mostly influences the output of grains and duration of their boiling, despite the solidity. The boiling coefficient depends on the solidity type more. The optimal mode as to thermal processing at production of peeled grains of soft wheat is is steaming during 10 min with hydration during 10–12 min. It is rational to steam solid wheat during 10 min with further hydration during 12–13 min at processing.

First study on trichothecene and zearalenone exposure of the Romanian population through wheat-based products consumption

In this study, a dietary exposure assessment of mycotoxins was conducted for the Romanian population using the contamination data of a various categories of wheat-based products for direct human consumption. Wheat-based foods (n = 181) commercialized in Romania, including flour, bread, biscuits, breakfast cereals and pasta, were evaluated by GC-QqQ-MS/MS for the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3AcDON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15AcDON), fusarenon-X, nivalenol, HT-2 and T-2 toxins, diacetoxyscirpenol, neosolaniol and zearalenone (ZEA). DON and 15AcDON were detected in 63 and 5% of all the analyzed samples, whereas 13-AcDON, HT-2, T-2, NIV and ZEA were not detected. Exposure of Romanian adult population was assessed, the EDIs for the sum of DON+3AcDON+15AcDON were 669 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1 at low-bound estimation, and 690 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1 at upper-bound estimation, being lower than the TDI set (1000 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1).