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Zhang H, Ge G, Zhang W, Sun H, Liang X, Xia Y, Du J, Wu Z, Bai J, Yang H, Yang X, Zhou J, Xu Y, Geng D. PP2Ac Regulates Autophagy via Mediating mTORC1 and ULK1 During Osteoclastogenesis in the Subchondral Bone of Osteoarthritis. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024:e2404080. [PMID: 39041921 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202404080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/24/2024]
Abstract
The molecular mechanism underlying abnormal osteoclastogenesis triggering subchondral bone remodeling in osteoarthritis (OA) is still unclear. Here, single-cell and bulk transcriptomics sequencing analyses are performed on GEO datasets to identify key molecules and validate them using knee joint tissues from OA patients and rat OA models. It is found that the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2Ac) is highly expressed during osteoclastogenesis in the early stage of OA and is correlated with autophagy. Knockdown or inhibition of PP2Ac weakened autophagy during osteoclastogenesis. Furthermore, the ULK1 expression of the downstream genes is significantly increased when PP2Ac is knocked down. PP2Ac-mediated autophagy is dependent on ULK1 phosphorylation activity during osteoclastogenesis, which is associated with enhanced dephosphorylation of ULK1 Ser637 residue regulating at the post-translational level. Additionally, mTORC1 inhibition facilitated the expression level of PP2Ac during osteoclastogenesis. In animal OA models, decreasing the expression of PP2Ac ameliorated early OA progression. The findings suggest that PP2Ac is also a promising therapeutic target in early OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haifeng Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200080, China
| | - Gaoran Ge
- Department of Orthopedics Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
| | - Houyi Sun
- Department of Orthopedics, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250063, China
| | - Xiaolong Liang
- Department of Orthopedics Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
| | - Yu Xia
- Department of Orthopedics Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
| | - Jiacheng Du
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jeonbuk National University Medical School, Jeonju, Jeonbuk, 54896, South Korea
| | - Zerui Wu
- Department of Orthopedics Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
- Department of Orthopedics, Changshu Hospital Affiliated to Soochow University, Changshu, Jiangsu, 215501, China
| | - Jiaxiang Bai
- Department of Orthopedics Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
- Department of Orthopedics, the First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, 234000, China
| | - Huilin Yang
- Department of Orthopedics Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
| | - Xing Yang
- Orthopedics and Sports Medicine Center, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, Nanjing Medical University Affiliated Suzhou Hospital, 242, Guangji Road, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215008, China
| | - Jun Zhou
- Department of Orthopedics Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
| | - Yaozeng Xu
- Department of Orthopedics Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
| | - Dechun Geng
- Department of Orthopedics Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
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Wang K, Kou Y, Rong X, Wei L, Li J, Liu H, Li M, Song H. ED-71 Improves Bone Mass in Ovariectomized Rats by Inhibiting Osteoclastogenesis Through EphrinB2-EphB4-RANKL/OPG Axis. Drug Des Devel Ther 2024; 18:1515-1528. [PMID: 38716369 PMCID: PMC11076049 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s454116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Estrogen deficiency is the main reason of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Eldecalcitol (ED-71) is a new active vitamin D analogue clinically used in the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. We aimed to investigate whether EphrinB2-EphB4 and RANKL/RANK/OPG signaling cooperate in mediating the process of osteoporosis by ED-71. Methods In vivo, the ovariectomized (OVX) rats were administered orally with 30 ng/kg ED-71 once a day for 8 weeks. HE staining, Masson staining and Immunofluorescence staining were used to evaluate bone mass, bone formation, osteoclastogenesis associated factors and the expression of EphrinB2, EphB4, RANKL and OPG. In vitro, H2O2 stimulation was used to simulate the cell environment in osteoporosis. Immunofluorescence, quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western Blot were applied to detect the expression of EphrinB2, EphB4, RANKL and OPG. In osteoblasts, EphB4 was knocked down by EphB4 small-interfering RNA (siRNA) transfection. LY294002 (PI3K inhibitor) or ARQ092 (AKT inhibitor) was used to block PI3K/AKT pathway. An indirect co-culture system of osteoblasts and osteoclasts was established. The mRNA and protein expression of osteoclastogenes is associated factors were tested by qRT-PCR and Western Blot. Results ED-71 increased bone mass and decreased the number of osteoclasts in OVX rats. Moreover, ED-71 promoted the expression of EphrinB2, EphB4, and decreased the RANKL/OPG ratio in osteoblasts. Osteoclastogenesis was restrained when osteoclasts were indirectly co-cultured with ED-71-treated osteoblasts. After silencing of EphB4 expression in osteoblasts, ED-71 inhibited the expression of P-PI3K and P-AKT and increased the ratio of RANKL/OPG. This reversed the inhibitory effect of ED-71 on osteoclastogenes. Therefore, in ED-71-inhibited osteoclastogenes, EphB4 is a key factor affecting the secretion of RANKL and OPG by osteoblasts. EphB4 suppressed the RANKL/OPG ratio through activating PI3K/AKT signaling in osteoblasts. Conclusion ED-71 inhibits osteoclastogenesis through EphrinB2-EphB4-RANKL/OPG axis, improving bone mass in ovariectomized rats. PI3K/AKT pathway is involved this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Wang
- Department of Bone Metabolism, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University & Shandong Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Engineering Research Center of Dental Materials and Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
- Center of Osteoporosis and Bone Mineral Research, Shandong University, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Health Care (Department of General Dentistry II), School and Hospital of Stomatology, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University & Shandong Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Engineering Research Center of Dental Materials and Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuying Kou
- School of Stomatology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xing Rong
- Department of Bone Metabolism, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University & Shandong Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Engineering Research Center of Dental Materials and Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
- Center of Osteoporosis and Bone Mineral Research, Shandong University, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lingling Wei
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University & Shandong Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Engineering Research Center of Dental Materials and Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jingyuan Li
- Department of Oral Mucosal Disease, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University & Shandong Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Engineering Research Center of Dental Materials and Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hongrui Liu
- Department of Bone Metabolism, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University & Shandong Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Engineering Research Center of Dental Materials and Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
- Center of Osteoporosis and Bone Mineral Research, Shandong University, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Minqi Li
- Department of Bone Metabolism, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University & Shandong Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Engineering Research Center of Dental Materials and Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
- Center of Osteoporosis and Bone Mineral Research, Shandong University, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hui Song
- Department of Health Care (Department of General Dentistry II), School and Hospital of Stomatology, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University & Shandong Key Laboratory of Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Engineering Research Center of Dental Materials and Oral Tissue Regeneration & Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Jinan, People’s Republic of China
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Wang R, Luo H, Yang D, Yu B, Guo J, Shao L, Okamura H, Qiu L. Osteoblast Jmjd3 regulates osteoclastogenesis via EphB4 and RANKL signalling. Oral Dis 2023; 29:1613-1621. [PMID: 35181970 DOI: 10.1111/odi.14160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Osteoblasts suppress osteoclastogenesis during the reversal phase of bone remodelling and the mechanism needs to be further investigated. Here, we investigated the role of histone demethylase Jumonji domain-containing 3 (Jmjd3) in osteoblasts on regulating osteoclastogenesis. METHODS Jmjd3 expression was silenced in osteoblasts. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts were co-cultured in direct or indirect contact ways, and osteoclastogenesis was determined by tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining and Western blotting. Additionally, Ephrin receptor B4 (EphB4) and receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa Β ligand (RANKL) expression were quantified in osteoblasts via real-time PCR, Western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Subsequently, EphB4 was overexpressed in osteoblasts and RANKL expression and osteoclastogenesis was quantified. RESULTS Osteoclastogenesis and marker protein expression levels was promoted when osteoclasts were co-cultured with Jmjd3-silenced osteoblasts. Silencing of Jmjd3 expression in osteoblasts decreased EphB4 expression, owing to suppression of demethylation of H3K27me3 on the promoter region of EphB4. Whereas RANKL expression was upregulated in Jmjd3-silenced osteoblasts. Overexpression of EphB4 in osteoblasts inhibited osteoclastogenesis and RANKL expression. CONCLUSION Jmjd3 in osteoblasts is a crucial regulator of osteoblast-to-osteoclast communication through EphB4-EphrinB2, RANKL-RANK and EphB4-RANKL signalling axes, suggesting the pivotal role of Jmjd3 in bone remodelling process in bone destruction disease such as chronic apical periodontitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Wang
- Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Department of Endodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Huikun Luo
- Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Department of Endodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Di Yang
- Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Department of Endodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Bo Yu
- Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Department of Endodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jiajie Guo
- Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Department of Endodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Lina Shao
- Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Department of Endodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Hirohiko Okamura
- Department of Oral Morphology, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Lihong Qiu
- Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Department of Endodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
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Ateeq H, Zia A, Husain Q, Khan MS, Ahmad M. Effect of inflammation on bones in diabetic patients with periodontitis via RANKL/OPG system-A review. J Diabetes Metab Disord 2022; 21:1003-1009. [PMID: 35673491 PMCID: PMC9167386 DOI: 10.1007/s40200-021-00960-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Diabetes mellitus and periodontitis are inflammatory diseases, the severity of inflammation results in the progression and persistence of both the disorders and affects bones. Diabetic complications aggravate in diabetic subjects having periodontitis; similarly, diabetic patients are more prone to developing gingivitis and periodontitis. Periodontal and diabetic inflammation disturbs bone homeostasis, which possibly involves both innate and adaptive immune responses. The pathogenic processes that link the two diseases are the focus of much research and it is likely that upregulated inflammation arising from each condition adversely affects the other. RANKL/OPG pathway plays a prominent role in periodontal and diabetic inflammation and bone resorption. Method This review article summarises the literature on the link between inflammatory cytokines and the prevalence of disturbed bone homeostasis in diabetic patients with periodontitis. An extensive search was done in PubMed, Scopus, Medline and Google Scholar databases between April 2003 and May 2021. Result A total of 27 articles, including pilot studies, case-control studies, cross-sectional studies, cohort studies, randomized control trials, longitudinal studies, descriptive studies and experimental studies, were included in our literature review. Conclusion Since RANKL/OPG are cytokines and have immune responses, regulating these cytokines expression will help control diabetes, periodontitis and bone homeostasis. The growing evidence of bone loss and increased fracture risk in diabetic patients with periodontitis makes it imperative that health professionals carry out planned treatment focusing on monitoring oral health in diabetic patients; bone markers should also be evaluated in patients with chronic periodontitis with an impaired glycemic state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hira Ateeq
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202002, India
- Dr. Ziauddin Ahmad Dental College, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202002, India
| | - Afaf Zia
- Dr. Ziauddin Ahmad Dental College, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202002, India
| | - Qayyum Husain
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202002, India
| | - Mohd Sajid Khan
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202002, India
| | - Mohd Ahmad
- Dr. Ziauddin Ahmad Dental College, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202002, India
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Kim KM, Jang WG. NXNL1 negatively regulates osteoblast differentiation via GDF15-induced PP2A Cα dependent manner in MC3T3-E1 cells. Biofactors 2022; 48:239-248. [PMID: 34932831 DOI: 10.1002/biof.1817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Controlling the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) is important for the survival and differentiation of osteoblasts. Intracellular ROS levels are controlled by antioxidant enzymes that modulate the redox state of the cell. Nucleoredoxin-like 1 (NXNL1) is an antioxidant enzyme that increases the viability of rod and cone cells by protecting them from oxidative stress, and is a potential pharmacological target for the treatment of retinitis pigmentosa. The present study investigated the role of NXNL on osteoblast differentiation of MC3T3-E1 preosteoblast cells. Results from qPCR experiments demonstrated that growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) increased NXNL1 expression, and that GDF15-induced NXNL1 decreased the expression of osteogenic genes such as distal-less homeobox 5 (Dlx5) and Runt-related transcription factor 2. Furthermore, NXNL1 also inhibits bone morphogenetic protein 2-induced phosphorylation of Smad1/5/9 and alkaline phosphatase activity. The inhibitory effects of NXNL1 on osteoblast differentiation were mediated by protein phosphatase 2A Cα (PP2A Cα). The expression of PP2A Cα was regulated by GDF15, and overexpression of PP2A Cα increased the expression of NXNL1. Taken together, our results demonstrate that NXNL1 inhibits osteoblast differentiation of MC3T3-E1 due to GDF15-induced expression of PP2A Cα.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyeong-Min Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk, South Korea
- Research Institute of Anti-Aging, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk, South Korea
- New Drug Development Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu, South Korea
| | - Won-Gu Jang
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk, South Korea
- Research Institute of Anti-Aging, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk, South Korea
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Guo T, Xing Y, Zhu H, Yang L, Xiao Y, Xu J. Relationship between osteoporosis and benign paroxysmal positional vertigo based on evidence-based medicine and bioinformatics. Arch Osteoporos 2021; 16:173. [PMID: 34779956 DOI: 10.1007/s11657-021-01006-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED It has been reported that osteoporosis is a possible risk factor of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV). PURPOSE We analyzed the correlation between osteoporosis and BPPV and the possible mechanism by performing evidence-based medicine meta-analysis and bioinformatics analysis. METHODS Initially, English articles related to osteoporosis and BPPV were obtained through PubMed and EMBASE databases. Stata12.0 software was used for meta-analysis to calculate the odd ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of outcome indicators, and the heterogeneity was evaluated by subgroup analysis, publication bias evaluation, and sensitivity analysis. In addition, microarray datasets related to BPPV and osteoporosis were obtained from gene expression omnibus (GEO) database to screen differentially expressed genes. At last, a mouse model of osteoporosis was established by bilateral oophorectomy for validation. RT-qPCR and Western blot analysis were performed to determine expression of related factors in mouse tissues. RESULTS Osteoporosis was suggested as an important risk factor for BPPV through meta-analysis of these 12 articles. It was found that PPP2CA was upregulated in BPPV and low bone mineral density (BMD) samples. Moreover, PPP2CA induced dephosphorylation of BCL2, which may be involved in BPPV through regulation of BMD. Through this mechanism, silencing of PPP2CA could elevate the incidence of BPPV by promoting bone remodeling and reducing the density of otoconia around the macula. CONCLUSIONS PPP2CA reduces BMD expression by inducing dephosphorylation of BCL2, which may be one of the mechanisms responsible for the onset of BPPV in osteoporosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuanmao Guo
- Department of Orthopedics, Xianyang Central Hospital, Xianyang, 712000, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanli Xing
- Department of Pharmacy, Xianyang Central Hospital, Shanxi Province, No. 78, Renmin East Road, Xianyang, 712000, People's Republic of China.
| | - Haiyun Zhu
- Department of Orthopedics, Xianyang Central Hospital, Xianyang, 712000, People's Republic of China
| | - Lan Yang
- Department of Orthopedics, Xianyang Central Hospital, Xianyang, 712000, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan Xiao
- Department of Orthopedics, Xianyang Central Hospital, Xianyang, 712000, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiang Xu
- Department of Orthopedics, Xianyang Central Hospital, Xianyang, 712000, People's Republic of China
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PP2A in LepR+ mesenchymal stem cells contributes to embryonic and postnatal endochondral ossification through Runx2 dephosphorylation. Commun Biol 2021; 4:658. [PMID: 34079065 PMCID: PMC8172534 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02175-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
It has not been well studied which cells and related mechanisms contribute to endochondral ossification. Here, we fate mapped the leptin receptor-expressing (LepR+) mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in different embryonic and adult extremities using Lepr-cre; tdTomato mice and investigated the underling mechanism using Lepr-cre; Ppp2r1afl/fl mice. Tomato+ cells appear in the primary and secondary ossification centers and express the hypertrophic markers. Ppp2r1a deletion in LepR+ MSCs reduces the expression of Runx2, Osterix, alkaline phosphatase, collagen X, and MMP13, but increases that of the mature adipocyte marker perilipin, thereby reducing trabecular bone density and enhancing fat content. Mechanistically, PP2A dephosphorylates Runx2 and BRD4, thereby playing a major role in positively and negatively regulating osteogenesis and adipogenesis, respectively. Our data identify LepR+ MSC as the cell origin of endochondral ossification during embryonic and postnatal bone growth and suggest that PP2A is a therapeutic target in the treatment of dysregulated bone formation. Yen et al use tissue-specific PP2A knockout mice to show that PP2A in LepR positive mesenchymal stem cells positively regulates endochondral ossification. They find that PP2A dephosphorylates Runx2 and BRD4, thereby playing a major role in positively and negatively regulating osteogenesis and adipogenesis, respectively.
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Karkache IY, Damodaran JR, Molstad DHH, Bradley EW. Serine/threonine phosphatases in osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption. Gene 2020; 771:145362. [PMID: 33338510 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2020.145362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Maintenance of optimal bone mass is controlled through the concerted functions of several cell types, including bone resorbing osteoclasts. Osteoclasts function to remove calcified tissue during developmental bone modeling, and degrade bone at sites of damage during bone remodeling. Changes to bone homeostasis can arise with alterations in osteoclastogenesis and/or catabolic activity that are not offset by anabolic activity; thus, factors that regulate osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption are of interest to further our understanding of basic bone biology, and as potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Several key cytokines, including RANKL and M-CSF, as well as co-stimulatory factors elicit kinase signaling cascades that promote osteoclastogenesis. These kinase cascades are offset by the action of protein phosphatases, including members of the serine/threonine phosphatase family. Here we review the functions of serine/threonine phosphatases and their control of osteoclast differentiation and function, while highlighting deficiencies in our understanding of this understudied class of proteins within the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismael Y Karkache
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Jeyaram R Damodaran
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - David H H Molstad
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Elizabeth W Bradley
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States; Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States.
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Kim KM, Kim EJ, Jang WG. Carbohydrate responsive element binding protein (ChREBP) negatively regulates osteoblast differentiation via protein phosphatase 2A Cα dependent manner. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2020; 124:105766. [PMID: 32416328 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2020.105766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Carbohydrate responsive element binding protein (ChREBP) is a major transcription factor of lipogenesis regulated by glucose status in the liver. However, the function of ChREBP in osteogenic differentiation is unclear. The present study examined the role of ChREBP in osteoblast differentiation in MC3T3-E1 preosteoblast cell line. The mRNA expression of ChREBP, protein phosphatase 2A catalytic subunit-α (PP2A Cα) and the osteogenic genes such as, DNA-binding protein inhibitor (Id1), runt-related transcription factor-2 (Runx2), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was measured by qPCR and RT-PCR. Runx2, ChREBP, and PP2A Cα, protein levels were evaluated by Western blotting. ALP staining experiment was carried out to evaluate ALP enzyme activity, and a luciferase reporter assay was performed to analyze Runx2 transcriptional activity. Expression of ChREBP and PP2A Cα did not change during bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP2)-induced osteoblast differentiation. Overexpression of ChREBP reduced the osteogenic genes (Runx2 and ALP) expression and ALP activity, while knockdown of ChREBP had the opposite effects. Overexpression of PP2A Cα increased ChREBP expression, while inhibition of PP2A Cα using okadaic acid not only inhibited the expression of ChREBP, but also restored the mRNA and protein expression of Runx2 and activity of ALP enzyme. These results demonstrate that ChREBP inhibits BMP2-induced osteoblast differentiation in a PP2A Cα- dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyeong-Min Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk 38453, Republic of Korea; Research Institute of Anti-Aging, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk 38453, Republic of Korea.
| | - Eun-Jung Kim
- Research Institute of Anti-Aging, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk 38453, Republic of Korea; Department of Immunology, Kyungpook National University School of Medicine, Daegu 41944, Republic of Korea.
| | - Won-Gu Jang
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk 38453, Republic of Korea; Research Institute of Anti-Aging, Daegu University, Gyeongbuk 38453, Republic of Korea.
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Peroxiredoxin II negatively regulates BMP2-induced osteoblast differentiation and bone formation via PP2A Cα-mediated Smad1/5/9 dephosphorylation. Exp Mol Med 2019; 51:1-11. [PMID: 31160554 PMCID: PMC6546700 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-019-0263-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Peroxiredoxin II (Prx II), an antioxidant enzyme in the Prx family, reduces oxidative stress by decreasing the intracellular ROS levels. Osteoblast differentiation is promoted by bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2), which upregulates the expression of osteoblast differentiation marker genes, through Smad1/5/9 phosphorylation. We found that Prx II expression was increased by a high dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) but was not increased by a low dose of LPS. Prx II itself caused a decrease in the osteogenic gene expression, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, and Smad1/5/9 phosphorylation induced by BMP2. In addition, BMP2-induced osteogenic gene expression and ALP activity were higher in Prx II knockout (KO) cells than they were in wild-type (WT) cells. These inhibitory effects were mediated by protein phosphatase 2A Cα (PP2A Cα), which was increased and is known to induce the dephosphorylation of Smad1/5/9. The overexpression of Prx II increased the expression of PP2A Cα, and PP2A Cα was not expressed in Prx II KO cells. Moreover, PP2A Cα reduced the level of BMP2-induced osteogenic gene expression and Smad1/5/9 phosphorylation. LPS inhibited BMP2-induced Smad1/5/9 phosphorylation and the suppressed phosphorylation was restored by the PP2A inhibitor okadaic acid (OA). Bone phenotype analyses using microcomputed tomography (μCT) revealed that the Prx II KO mice had higher levels of bone mass than the levels of the WT mice. We hypothesize that Prx II has a negative role in osteoblast differentiation through the PP2A-dependent dephosphorylation of Smad1/5/9. An antioxidant enzyme actively works to reduce bone synthesis under oxidative stress conditions in order to protect bone cells from damage and cell death. Bone is generated by cells called osteoblasts, which differentiate from stem cells. In osteoporosis and diabetes, excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) within cells can disrupt osteoblast differentiation. South Korean researchers led by Eun-jung Kim at Kyungpook National University, Daegu, and Won-Gu Jang at Daegu University, Gyeongbuk, have shown that an antioxidant enzyme, peroxiredoxin II (PrxII), helps regulate bone formation under oxidative stress. The team generated PrxII-deficient mice and compared them with healthy normal mice. Under oxidative stress conditions, the mice had higher bone mass and higher expression of genes related to bone formation than the normal mice. PrxII limits osteoblast differentiation during elevated ROS by influencing associated protein activity and signalling pathways.
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Ricarte FR, Le Henaff C, Kolupaeva VG, Gardella TJ, Partridge NC. Parathyroid hormone(1-34) and its analogs differentially modulate osteoblastic Rankl expression via PKA/SIK2/SIK3 and PP1/PP2A-CRTC3 signaling. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:20200-20213. [PMID: 30377251 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.004751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Revised: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteoporosis can result from the loss of sex hormones and/or aging. Abaloparatide (ABL), an analog of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP(1-36)), is the second osteoanabolic therapy approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration after teriparatide (PTH(1-34)). All three peptides bind PTH/PTHrP receptor type 1 (PTHR1), but the effects of PTHrP(1-36) or ABL in the osteoblast remain unclear. We show that, in primary calvarial osteoblasts, PTH(1-34) promotes a more robust cAMP response than PTHrP(1-36) and ABL and causes a greater activation of protein kinase A (PKA) and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB). All three peptides similarly inhibited sclerostin (Sost). Interestingly, the three peptides differentially modulated two other PKA target genes, c-Fos and receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (Rankl), and the latter both in vitro and in vivo Knockdown of salt-inducible kinases (SIKs) 2 and 3 and CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 3 (CRTC3), indicated that all three are part of the pathway that regulates osteoblastic Rankl expression. We also show that the peptides differentially regulate the nuclear localization of CRTC2 and CRTC3, and that this correlates with PKA activation. Moreover, inhibition of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A (PP1/PP2A) activity revealed that they play a major role in both PTH-induced Rankl expression and the effects of PTH(1-34) on CRTC3 localization. In summary, in the osteoblast, the effects of PTH(1-34), PTHrP(1-36), and ABL on Rankl are mediated by differential stimulation of cAMP/PKA signaling and by their downstream effects on SIK2 and -3, PP1/PP2A, and CRTC3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florante R Ricarte
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016
| | - Carole Le Henaff
- the Department of Basic Science and Craniofacial Biology, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York 10010, and
| | - Victoria G Kolupaeva
- the Department of Basic Science and Craniofacial Biology, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York 10010, and
| | - Thomas J Gardella
- the Endocrine Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - Nicola C Partridge
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016,; the Department of Basic Science and Craniofacial Biology, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York 10010, and.
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12
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Yoshida K, Teramachi J, Uchibe K, Ikegame M, Qiu L, Yang D, Okamura H. Reduction of protein phosphatase 2A Cα promotes in vivo bone formation and adipocyte differentiation. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018; 470:251-258. [PMID: 29128580 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Serine/threonine protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) regulates diverse physiological processes such as cell cycle, growth, apoptosis, and signal transduction. Previously, we demonstrated that silencing of the α-isoform of PP2A catalytic subunit (PP2A Cα) in osteoblasts accelerated osteoblast differentiation, whereas its overexpression suppressed differentiation. In this study, we examined the role of PP2A Cα in in vivo bone formation by generating transgenic mice (PP2A-Tg), in which the dominant negative form of PP2A Cα was specifically expressed in osteoblasts. PP2A-Tg mice exhibited an increase in body weight, cortical bone mineral density, and cortical bone thickness. Interestingly, they also displayed higher amounts of adipose tissue in the bone marrow of tibiae. The co-culture study showed that PP2A Cα-knockdown osteoblasts stimulated adipocyte differentiation from undifferentiated mesenchymal cells via upregulation of the adipocyte marker genes, such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein α (C/EBPα). These results indicated that the reduction of PP2A Cα levels in osteoblasts promoted bone formation in vivo. Additionally, PP2A Cα in osteoblasts was also potentially involved in controlling adipocyte differentiation through a paracrine mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaya Yoshida
- Department of Oral Healthcare Educations, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan
| | - Jumpei Teramachi
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan
| | - Kenta Uchibe
- Department of Oral Morphology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8525, Japan
| | - Mika Ikegame
- Department of Oral Morphology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8525, Japan
| | - Lihong Qiu
- Department of Endodontics, School of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang 110002, China
| | - Di Yang
- Department of Endodontics, School of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang 110002, China.
| | - Hirohiko Okamura
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan; Department of Oral Morphology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1 Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-8525, Japan.
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13
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Wang L, Guo X, Zhou W, Ding Y, Shi J, Wu X, Liu Y, Xu Y, Yang H, Geng D. Protein phosphatase 2A as a new target for downregulating osteoclastogenesis and alleviating titanium particle-induced bone resorption. Acta Biomater 2018; 73:488-499. [PMID: 29656074 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2017] [Revised: 03/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Receptor activator of nuclear factor-кB ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclastogenesis is believed to play a critical role in osteolytic diseases including peri-prosthetic osteolysis (PPO), the primary reason for implant failure and revision surgery. In this study, we observed that protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), a major serine-threonine phosphatase, was highly expressed in human periprosthetic interface membranes with aseptic loosening and in a murine osteolysis model induced by titanium particle irritation. PP2A inhibition effectively alleviated titanium particle-induced bone destruction at osteolytic sites. In addition, PP2A downregulation significantly decreased osteoclast numbers and RANKL expression, compared with in animals treated with only titanium. Mechanistically, a PP2A selective inhibitor or PP2A siRNA suppressed osteoclastogenesis and alleviated osteoclastic resorption by inhibiting the RANKL-induced nuclear factor-кB and c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling pathways. Downstream NFATc1 and c-Fos expression were also substantially suppressed by PP2A inhibition or knockdown. Our findings support the importance of PP2A during osteoclastogenesis, identifying PP2A as a novel target for treating particle-induced or other osteoclast-mediated bone resorption diseases. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Excessive osteoclast activation disrupts bone homeostasis and leads to osteoclast-mediated bone resorption diseases, such as peri-prosthetic osteolysis, regarded as the primary reason for implant failure and revision surgery. Here, we firstly demonstrated protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), a major serine-threonine phosphatase, was highly expressed in human periprosthetic interface membranes with aseptic loosening and murine osteolysis model. Moreover, PP2A inhibition effectively alleviated titanium particle-induced bone destruction and decreased osteoclast numbers. Meanwhile, a PP2A selective inhibitor or PP2A siRNA suppressed osteoclastogenesis and alleviated osteoclastic resorption by inhibiting the nuclear factor-кB and c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling pathways. Thus, PP2A is involved in osteoclastogenesis and could be a promising target for regulating bone homeostasis and osteolytic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangliang Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Xiaobin Guo
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Wei Zhou
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Yayun Ding
- Department of Pathology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Jiawei Shi
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Xiexing Wu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Yaozeng Xu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.
| | - Huilin Yang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.
| | - Dechun Geng
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.
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Sun D, Wan X, Pan BB, Sun Q, Ji XB, Zhang F, Zhang H, Cao CC. Bioinformatics Analysis of Genes and Pathways of CD11b +/Ly6C intermediate Macrophages after Renal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury. Curr Med Sci 2018; 38:70-77. [PMID: 30074154 PMCID: PMC7089064 DOI: 10.1007/s11596-018-1848-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is a major cause of acute kidney injury (AKI), which could induce the poor prognosis. The purpose of this study was to characterize the molecular mechanism of the functional changes of CDllb+/Ly6Cintermediate macrophages after renal IRI. The gene expression profiles of CDllb+/Ly6Cintermcdiate macrophages of the sham surgery mice, and the mice 4 h, 24 h and 9 days after renal IRI were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Analysis of mRNA expression profiles was conducted to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs), biological processes and pathways by the series test of cluster. Protein-protein interaction network was constructed and analysed to discover the key genes. A total of 6738 DEGs were identified and assigned to 20 model profiles. DEGs in profile 13 were one of the predominant expression profiles, which are involved in immune cell chemotaxis and proliferation. Signet analysis showed that Atp5al, Atp5o, Cox4i, Cdc42, Rac2 and Nhp2 were the key genes involved in oxidation-reduction, apoptosis, migration, M1-M2 differentiation, and proliferation of macrophages. RPS18 may be an appreciate reference gene as it was stable in macrophages. The identified DEGs and their enriched pathways investigate factors that may participate in the functional changes of CD 1lb+Ly6Cintermediate macrophages after renal IRI. Moreover, the vital gene Nhp2 may involve the polarization of macrophages, which may be a new target to affect the process of AKI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Sun
- Department of Nephrology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006 China
| | - Xin Wan
- Department of Nephrology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006 China
| | - Bin-bin Pan
- Department of Nephrology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006 China
| | - Qing Sun
- Department of Nephrology, The Affiliated Sir Run Run Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166 China
| | - Xiao-bing Ji
- Department of Nephrology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006 China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Department of Nephrology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006 China
| | - Hao Zhang
- Department of Nephrology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006 China
| | - Chang-chun Cao
- Department of Nephrology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006 China
- Department of Nephrology, The Affiliated Sir Run Run Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166 China
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15
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Yang D, Yu B, Sun H, Qiu L. The Roles of Histone Demethylase Jmjd3 in Osteoblast Differentiation and Apoptosis. J Clin Med 2017; 6:jcm6030024. [PMID: 28241471 PMCID: PMC5372993 DOI: 10.3390/jcm6030024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Posttranslational modifications including histone methylation regulate gene transcription through directly affecting the structure of chromatin. Trimethylation of histone 3 lysine 27 (H3K27me3) is observed at the promoters of a wide variety of important genes, especially for mammalian development, and contributes to gene silencing. Demethylase Jumonji domain-containing 3 (Jmjd3) catalyzes the transition of H3K27me3 to H3K27me1, therefore from a repressive to an active status of gene expression. Jmjd3 plays important roles in cell differentiation, inflammation, and tumorigenesis by targeting distinct transcription factors. In this review, we summarize the pivotal roles of Jmjd3 in maintaining skeletal homeostasis through regulating osteoblast differentiation, maturation, and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Yang
- Department of Endodontics, School of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang 110002, China.
| | - Bo Yu
- Department of Endodontics, School of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang 110002, China.
| | - Haiyan Sun
- Department of Endodontics, School of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang 110002, China.
| | - Lihong Qiu
- Department of Endodontics, School of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang 110002, China.
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16
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Okamura H, Yoshida K, Morimoto H, Teramachi J, Ochiai K, Haneji T, Yamamoto A. Role of Protein Phosphatase 2A in Osteoblast Differentiation and Function. J Clin Med 2017; 6:jcm6030023. [PMID: 28241467 PMCID: PMC5372992 DOI: 10.3390/jcm6030023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Revised: 01/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The reversible phosphorylation of proteins plays hugely important roles in a variety of cellular processes, such as differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. These processes are strictly controlled by protein kinases (phosphorylation) and phosphatases (de-phosphorylation). Here we provide a brief history of the study of protein phosphorylation, including a summary of different types of protein kinases and phosphatases. One of the most physiologically important serine/threonine phosphatases is PP2A. This review provides a description of the phenotypes of various PP2A transgenic mice and further focuses on the known functions of PP2A in bone formation, including its role in osteoblast differentiation and function. A reduction in PP2A promotes bone formation and osteoblast differentiation through the regulation of bone-related transcription factors such as Osterix. Interestingly, downregulation of PP2A also stimulates adipocyte differentiation from undifferentiated mesenchymal cells under the appropriate adipogenic differentiation conditions. In osteoblasts, PP2A is also involved in the ability to control osteoclastogenesis as well as in the proliferation and metastasis of osteosarcoma cells. Thus, PP2A is considered to be a comprehensive factor in controlling the differentiation and function of cells derived from mesenchymal cells such as osteoblasts and adipocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirohiko Okamura
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan.
| | - Kaya Yoshida
- Department of Oral healthcare educations, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan.
| | - Hiroyuki Morimoto
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, 1-1, Iseigaoka, Yahatanishi, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka 807-8555, Japan.
| | - Jumpei Teramachi
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan.
| | - Kazuhiko Ochiai
- Department of Veterinary Nursing and Technology, School of Veterinary Science, Nippon Veterinary Nursing and Life Science University, Tokyo 180-8602, Japan.
| | - Tatsuji Haneji
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan.
| | - Akihito Yamamoto
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan.
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17
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Roles of PKR in differentiation and apoptosis of bone-related cells. Anat Sci Int 2016; 92:313-319. [DOI: 10.1007/s12565-016-0385-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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18
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Protein phosphatase 2A Cα regulates proliferation, migration, and metastasis of osteosarcoma cells. J Transl Med 2016; 96:1050-62. [PMID: 27617401 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2016.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Revised: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteosarcoma is the most frequent primary bone tumor. Serine/threonine protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) participates in regulating many important physiological processes, such as cell cycle, growth, apoptosis, and signal transduction. In this study, we examined the expression and function of PP2A Cα in osteosarcoma cells. PP2A Cα expression was expected to be higher in malignant osteosarcoma tissues. PP2A Cα expression level and PP2A activity was higher in malignant osteosarcoma LM8 cells compared with that in primary osteoblasts and in the osteoblast-like cell line MC3T3-E1. Okadaic acid, an inhibitor of PP2A, reduced cell viability and induced apoptosis in LM8 cells. PP2A Cα-knockdown LM8 cells (shPP2A) exhibited less striking filopodial and lamellipodial structures than that in original LM8 cells. Focal adhesion kinase phosphorylation and NF-κB activity decreased in shPP2A-treated cells. Sensitivity to serum deprivation-induced apoptosis increased in shPP2A-treated cells, accompanied by a lower expression level of anti-apoptotic BCL-2 in these cells. Reduction of PP2A Cα resulted in a decrease in the migration ability of LM8 cells in vitro. Reduction in PP2A Cα levels in vivo suppressed proliferation and metastasis in LM8 cells. PP2A Cα expression was also higher in human osteosarcoma MG63 and SaOS-2 cells than that in primary osteoblasts and MC3T3-E1 cells, and reduction in PP2A Cα levels suppressed the cell proliferation rate and migration ability of MG63 cells. These results indicate that PP2A Cα has a critical role in the proliferation and metastasis of osteosarcoma cells; therefore, its inhibition could potentially suppress the malignancy of osteosarcoma cells.
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19
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Calasans-Maia MD, Melo BRD, Alves ATNN, Resende RFDB, Louro RS, Sartoretto SC, Granjeiro JM, Alves GG. Cytocompatibility and biocompatibility of nanostructured carbonated hydroxyapatite spheres for bone repair. J Appl Oral Sci 2016; 23:599-608. [PMID: 26814461 PMCID: PMC4716697 DOI: 10.1590/1678-775720150122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The aim of this study was to investigate the in vitro and in vivo biological responses to nanostructured carbonated hydroxyapatite/calcium alginate (CHA) microspheres used for alveolar bone repair, compared to sintered hydroxyapatite (HA). Material and Methods The maxillary central incisors of 45 Wistar rats were extracted, and the dental sockets were filled with HA, CHA, and blood clot (control group) (n=5/period/group). After 7, 21 and 42 days, the samples of bone with the biomaterials were obtained for histological and histomorphometric analysis, and the plasma levels of RANKL and OPG were determined via immunoassay. Statistical analysis was performed by Two-Way ANOVA with post-hoc Tukey test at 95% level of significance. Results The CHA and HA microspheres were cytocompatible with both human and murine cells on an in vitro assay. Histological analysis showed the time-dependent increase of newly formed bone in control group characterized by an intense osteoblast activity. In HA and CHA groups, the presence of a slight granulation reaction around the spheres was observed after seven days, which was reduced by the 42nd day. A considerable amount of newly formed bone was observed surrounding the CHA spheres and the biomaterials particles at 42-day time point compared with HA. Histomorphometric analysis showed a significant increase of newly formed bone in CHA group compared with HA after 21 and 42 days from surgery, moreover, CHA showed almost 2-fold greater biosorption than HA at 42 days (two-way ANOVA, p<0.05) indicating greater biosorption. An increase in the RANKL/OPG ratio was observed in the CHA group on the 7th day. Conclusion CHA spheres were osteoconductive and presented earlier biosorption, inducing early increases in the levels of proteins involved in resorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mônica Diuana Calasans-Maia
- Departamento de Cirurgia Oral, Faculdade de Odontologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, RJ, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Rafael Seabra Louro
- Departamento de Cirurgia Oral, Faculdade de Odontologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - José Mauro Granjeiro
- Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gutemberg Gomes Alves
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niteroi, RJ, Brazil
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Wang Y, He H, Liu Z, Cao Z, Wang X, Yang K, Fang Y, Han M, Zhang C, Huo F. Effects of TNF-α on Cementoblast Differentiation, Mineralization, and Apoptosis. J Dent Res 2015; 94:1225-32. [PMID: 26088424 DOI: 10.1177/0022034515590349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor–α (TNF-α) is involved in various inflammatory processes, including periodontitis. Although the influences of TNF-α on periodontal ligament fibroblasts and osteoblasts have been widely documented, its effects on cementoblasts, the cells responsible for cementum production, remain largely unknown. In this study, we found that TNF-α suppressed the mineralization ability of cementoblasts by inhibiting differentiation and inducing apoptosis. Various signaling pathways, such as p53, PP2AC, p38, Erk1/2, JNK, PI3K-Akt, and NF-κB, were activated during this process. The use of a specific inhibitor and siRNA transfection confirmed that the effects of TNF-α on differentiation and apoptosis in cementoblasts were partially abrogated by inhibiting p53 activity. By contrast, the effects of TNF-α were even exacerbated by the inhibition of the p38, Erk1/2, JNK, PI3K-Akt, and NF-κB pathways. Moreover, p53 activity was further enhanced by blocking the p38, Erk1/2, JNK, and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways. Taken together, these results suggested that the differentiation inhibition and apoptosis in cementoblasts induced by TNF-α were partially dependent on p53 activity. The p38, Erk1/2, JNK, PI3K-Akt, and NF-κB pathways were also activated but acted as balancing players to limit rather than conduct the negative effects of TNF-α. These balancing effects were dependent, or at least partially dependent, on p53, except for the NF-κB pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y.L. Wang
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - H. He
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Z.J. Liu
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Z.G. Cao
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - X.Y. Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - K. Yang
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Y. Fang
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - M. Han
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - C. Zhang
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - F.Y. Huo
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
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21
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Sundaram K, Sambandam Y, Balasubramanian S, Pillai B, Voelkel-Johnson C, Ries WL, Reddy SV. STAT-6 mediates TRAIL induced RANK ligand expression in stromal/preosteoblast cells. Bone 2015; 71:137-44. [PMID: 25445452 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2014.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Revised: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL) is a critical osteoclastogenic factor expressed in bone marrow stromal/osteoblast lineage cells. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) levels are elevated in pathologic conditions such as multiple myeloma and inflammatory arthritis, and have been positively correlated with osteolytic markers. Osteoprotegerin (OPG) which inhibits osteoclastogenesis is a decoy receptor for RANKL and also known to interact with TRAIL. Herein, we show that TRAIL increases DR5 and DcR1 receptors but no change in the levels of DR4 and DcR2 expression in human bone marrow derived stromal/preosteoblast (SAKA-T) cell line. We further demonstrated that TRAIL treatment significantly decreased OPG mRNA expression. Interestingly, TRAIL treatment induced RANKL mRNA expression in these cells. In addition, TRAIL significantly increased NF-kB and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activity. Human transcription factor array screening by real-time RT-PCR identified TRAIL up-regulation of the signal transducers and activators of the transcription (STAT)-6 expression in SAKA-T cells. TRAIL stimulation induced p-STAT-6 expression in human bone marrow derived primary stromal/preosteoblast cells. Confocal microscopy analysis further revealed p-STAT-6 nuclear localization in SAKA-T cells. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay confirmed p-STAT-6 binding to the hRANKL gene distal promoter region. In addition, siRNA suppression of STAT-6 expression inhibits TRAIL increased hRANKL gene promoter activity. Thus, our results suggest that TRAIL induces RANKL expression through a STAT-6 dependent transcriptional regulatory mechanism in bone marrow stromal/preosteoblast cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumaran Sundaram
- Charles P. Darby Children's Research Institute, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Yuvaraj Sambandam
- Charles P. Darby Children's Research Institute, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | | | - Balakrishnan Pillai
- Charles P. Darby Children's Research Institute, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | | | - William L Ries
- College of Dental Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Sakamuri V Reddy
- Charles P. Darby Children's Research Institute, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA.
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22
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Yoshida K, Yoshioka M, Okamura H, Moriyama S, Kawazoe K, Grenier D, Hinode D. Preventive effect of Daiokanzoto (TJ-84) on 5-fluorouracil-induced human gingival cell death through the inhibition of reactive oxygen species production. PLoS One 2014; 9:e112689. [PMID: 25389767 PMCID: PMC4229234 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0112689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Daiokanzoto (TJ-84) is a traditional Japanese herbal medicine (Kampo formulation). While many Kampo formulations have been reported to regulate inflammation and immune responses in oral mucosa, there is no evidence to show that TJ-84 has beneficial effects on oral mucositis, a disease resulting from increased cell death induced by chemotherapeutic agents such as 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). In order to develop effective new therapeutic strategies for treating oral mucositis, we investigated (i) the mechanisms by which 5-FU induces the death of human gingival cells and (ii) the effects of TJ-84 on biological events induced by 5-FU. 5-FU-induced lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and pore formation in gingival cells (Sa3 cell line) resulted in cell death. Incubating the cells with 5-FU increased the expression of nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat containing PYD-3 (NLRP3) and caspase-1. The cleavage of caspase-1 was observed in 5-FU-treated cells, which was followed by an increased secretion of interleukin (IL)-1β. The inhibition of the NLRP3 pathway slightly decreased the effects of 5-FU on cell viability and LDH release, suggesting that NLRP3 may be in part involved in 5-FU-induced cell death. TJ-84 decreased 5-FU-induced LDH release and cell death and also significantly inhibited the depolarization of mitochondria and the up-regulation of 5-FU-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) production. The transcriptional factor, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) was not involved in the 5-FU-induced cell death in Sa3 cells. In conclusion, we provide evidence suggesting that the increase of ROS production in mitochondria, rather than NLRP3 activation, was considered to be associated with the cell death induced by 5-FU. The results also suggested that TJ-84 may attenuate 5-FU-induced cell death through the inhibition of mitochondrial ROS production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaya Yoshida
- Department of Oral Healthcare Education, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, Tokushima, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Masami Yoshioka
- Department of Oral Health Science and Social Welfare, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Hirohiko Okamura
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Satomi Moriyama
- Department of Hygiene and Oral Health Science, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Kawazoe
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Daniel Grenier
- Oral Ecology Research Group, Faculty of Dentistry, Laval University, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Daisuke Hinode
- Department of Hygiene and Oral Health Science, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, Tokushima, Japan
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23
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Okamura H, Yang D, Yoshida K, Teramachi J, Haneji T. Reduction of PP2A Cα stimulates adipogenesis by regulating the Wnt/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway and PPARγ expression. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2014; 1843:2376-84. [PMID: 24949891 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2014.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Revised: 05/27/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Serine/threonine protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) regulates several physiological processes such as the cell cycle, cell growth, apoptosis, and signal transduction. In this study, we examined the expression and role of PP2A Cα in adipocyte differentiation. PP2A Cα expression and PP2A activity decreased during adipocyte differentiation in C3H10T1/2 and 3T3-L1 cells and the expression of adipocyte marker genes such as PPARγ and adiponectin increased. To further clarify the role of PP2A Cα in adipocyte differentiation, we constructed PP2A knockdown cells by infecting C3H10T1/2 cells with a lentivirus expressing a shRNA specific for the PP2A Cα (shPP2A cells). Silencing of PP2A Cα in C3H10T1/2 cells dramatically stimulated adipocyte differentiation and lipid accumulation, which were accompanied by expression of adipocyte marker genes. Silencing of PP2A Cα suppressed Wnt10b expression and reduced the levels of the inactivated form of GSK-3β (phospho-GSK-3β), leading to the reduction of β-catenin levels in the nucleus and its transcriptional activity. Treatment with LiCl, a GSK-3β inhibitor, and inhibition of PPARγ expression suppressed the accelerated adipogenesis of shPP2A cells. Our data indicate that PP2A Cα plays an important role in the regulation of adipocyte differentiation by regulating the Wnt/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway and PPARγ expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirohiko Okamura
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Health Biosciences, The University of Tokushima Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan.
| | - Di Yang
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Health Biosciences, The University of Tokushima Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan
| | - Kaya Yoshida
- Oral Health Care Education, Institute of Health Biosciences, The University of Tokushima Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan
| | - Jumpei Teramachi
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Health Biosciences, The University of Tokushima Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan
| | - Tatsuji Haneji
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Health Biosciences, The University of Tokushima Graduate School, 3-18-15, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan
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24
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Yang D, Okamura H, Nakashima Y, Haneji T. Histone demethylase Jmjd3 regulates osteoblast differentiation via transcription factors Runx2 and osterix. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:33530-33541. [PMID: 24106268 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.497040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-translational modifications of histones including methylation play important roles in cell differentiation. Jumonji domain-containing 3 (Jmjd3) is a histone demethylase, which specifically catalyzes the removal of trimethylation of histone H3 at lysine 27 (H3K27me3). In this study, we examined the expression of Jmjd3 in osteoblasts and its roles in osteoblast differentiation. Jmjd3 expression in the nucleus was induced in response to the stimulation of osteoblast differentiation as well as treatment of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2). Either treatment with Noggin, an inhibitor of BMP-2, or silencing of Smad1/5 suppressed Jmjd3 expression during osteoblast differentiation. Silencing of Jmjd3 expression suppressed osteoblast differentiation through the expression of bone-related genes including Runx2, osterix, osteopontin, bone sialoprotein (BSP), and osteocalcin (OCN). Silencing of Jmjd3 decreased the promoter activities of Runx2 and osterix and increased the level of H3K27me3 on the promoter regions of Runx2 and osterix. Introduction of the exogenous Runx2 and osterix partly rescued osteoblast differentiation in the shJmjd3 cells. The present results indicate that Jmjd3 plays important roles in osteoblast differentiation and regulates the expressions of BSP and OCN via transcription factors Runx2 and osterix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Yang
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Health Biosciences, The University of Tokushima Graduate School, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan; Department of Endodontics, School of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang 110002, China
| | - Hirohiko Okamura
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Health Biosciences, The University of Tokushima Graduate School, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Nakashima
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Health Biosciences, The University of Tokushima Graduate School, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan
| | - Tatsuji Haneji
- Department of Histology and Oral Histology, Institute of Health Biosciences, The University of Tokushima Graduate School, Kuramoto, Tokushima 770-8504, Japan.
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