Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender content on reproductive endocrinology and infertility clinic websites

Addressing the Health Needs of LGBTQ Persons in Medical Curricula: A Review of Educational Programs

OBJECTIVE

Given the vulnerability of and the importance of caring for the specific health care needs of the growing lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) population, the authors attempted to identify all educational interventions in psychiatric settings with quantitative outcomes targeting medical students, residents, and physicians in postgraduate settings. To gain insight from other disciplines that have published research in this area, a second objective was to review studies in teaching in those other disciplines. The authors sought to describe the methods of selected studies.

METHODS

The authors searched the published English-language literature indexed in PubMed, EMBASE, and PsycINFO using key terms for health care education concerning LGBTQ populations. The authors described and critically appraised studies with quantitative outcomes designed to enhance knowledge, skills, and attitudes in treating the LGBTQ community.

RESULTS

Of the 15 trials identified, 10 included medical students, 4 included internal medicine residents or medical school faculty, and 1 included oncologists. We did not find any randomized controlled trials or controlled nonrandomized trials of curricula dedicated to teaching learners in psychiatry. All of the studies included a presurvey, followed by an educational intervention and then a postsurvey assessment. The educational interventions, outcome measures, and quality of studies varied widely. Four studies enrolled self-identified members of the LGBTQ community as trainers and facilitators of the educational interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

The lack of high-quality controlled studies indicates the need to develop evidence-based curricula to support the education of the psychiatric workforce to provide for the special needs of LGBTQ persons.

Differences in medically assisted reproduction use by sexual identity and partnership: a prospective cohort of cisgender women

STUDY QUESTION

Does medically assisted reproduction (MAR) use among cisgender women differ among those with same-sex partners or lesbian/bisexual identities compared to peers with different-sex partners or heterosexual identities?

SUMMARY ANSWER

Women with same-sex partners or lesbian/bisexual identities are more likely to utilize any MAR but are no more likely to use ART (i.e. IVF, reciprocal IVF, embryo transfer, unspecified ART, ICSI, and gamete or zygote intrafallopian transfer) compared to non-ART MAR (i.e. IUI, ovulation induction, and intravaginal or intracervical insemination) than their different-sex partnered and completely heterosexual peers.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

Sexual minority women (SMW) form families in myriad ways, including through fostering, adoption, genetic, and/or biological routes. Emerging evidence suggests this population increasingly wants to form genetic and/or biological families, yet little is known about their family formation processes and conception needs.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

The Growing Up Today Study is a US-based prospective cohort (n = 27 805). Participants were 9-17 years of age at enrollment (1996 and 2004). Biennial follow-up is ongoing, with data collected through 2021.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

Cisgender women who met the following criteria were included in this sample: endorsed ever being pregnant; attempted a pregnancy in 2019 or 2021; and endorsed either a male- or female-sex partner OR responded to questions regarding their sexual identity during their conception window. The main outcome was any MAR use including ART (i.e. procedures involving micromanipulation of gametes) and non-ART MAR (i.e. nonmanipulation of gametes). Secondary outcomes included specific MAR procedures, time to conception, and trends across time. We assessed differences in any MAR use using weighted modified Poisson generalized estimating equations.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

Among 3519 participants, there were 6935 pregnancies/pregnancy attempts and 19.4% involved MAR. A total of 47 pregnancies or pregnancy attempts were among the same-sex partnered participants, while 91 were among bisexual participants and 37 among lesbian participants. Participants with same-sex, compared to different-sex partners were almost five times as likely to use MAR (risk ratio [95% CI]: 4.78 [4.06, 5.61]). Compared to completely heterosexual participants, there was greater MAR use among lesbian (4.00 [3.10, 5.16]) and bisexual (2.22 [1.60, 3.07]) participants compared to no MAR use; mostly heterosexual participants were also more likely to use ART (1.42 [1.11, 1.82]) compared to non-ART MAR. Among first pregnancies conceived using MAR, conception pathways differed by partnership and sexual identity groups; differences were largest for IUI, intravaginal insemination, and timed intercourse with ovulation induction. From 2002 to 2021, MAR use increased proportionally to total pregnancies/pregnancy attempts; ART use was increasingly common in later years among same-sex partnered and lesbian participants.

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

Our results are limited by the small number of SMW, the homogenous sample of mostly White, educated participants, the potential misclassification of MAR use when creating conception pathways unique to SMW, and the questionnaire's skip logic, which excluded certain participants from receiving MAR questions.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

Previous studies on SMW family formation have primarily focused on clinical outcomes from ART procedures and perinatal outcomes by conception method, and have been almost exclusively limited to European, clinical samples that relied on partnership data only. Despite the small sample of SMW within a nonrepresentative study, this is the first study to our knowledge to use a nonclinical sample of cisgender women from across the USA to elucidate family formation pathways by partnership as well as sexual identity, including pathways that may be unique to SMW. This was made possible by our innovative approach to MAR categorization within a large, prospective dataset that collected detailed sexual orientation data. Specifically, lesbian, bisexual, and same-sex partnered participants used both ART and non-ART MAR at similar frequencies compared to heterosexual and different-sex partnered participants. This may signal differential access to conception pathways owing to structural barriers, emerging conception trends as family formation among SMW has increased, and a need for conception support beyond specialized providers and fertility clinics.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

The research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), under award number R01MD015256. Additionally, KRSS is supported by NCI grant T32CA009001, AKH by the NCI T32CA057711, PC by the NHLBI T32HL098048, BM by the Stanford Maternal Child Health Research Institute Clinical Trainee Support Grant and the Diversity Fellowship from the American Society for Reproductive Medicine Research Institute, BGE by NICHD R01HD091405, and SM by the Thomas O. Pyle Fellowship through the Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Foundation and Harvard University, NHLBI T32HL098048, NIMH R01MH112384, and the William T. Grant Foundation grant number 187958. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. The first author recently had a leadership role in the not-for-profit program, The Lesbian Health Fund, a research fund focused on improving the health and wellbeing of LGBTQ+ women and girls. The fund did not have any role in this study and the author's relationship with the fund did not bias the findings of this manuscript.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

N/A.

Inclusive language and environment to welcome lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, intersex, and asexual+ patients

Using inclusive language and creating an inclusive clinical environment to serve lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, intersex, and asexual+ patients is vital to optimizing access to care and patient outcomes. Practical recommendations are made for increasing inclusivity in the clinic, and a glossary of current terms is included.

Deafening Silence of Male Infertility

Think about 6 loved ones of reproductive age in your life. Now imagine that 1 of these 6 individuals is suffering from infertility. Perhaps they feel alone and isolated, unable to discuss their heartbreak with their closest friends, family, and support network. Suffering in silence. In this editorial, we discuss the infertility journey through the lens of the patients, the providers, and the scientists who struggle with infertility each and every day. Our goal is to open a dialogue surrounding infertility, with an emphasis on dismantling the longstanding societal barriers to acknowledging male infertility as a disease. Through education, communication, compassion, and advocacy, together we can all begin to break the deafening silence of male infertility.

Interest In and Prior Receipt of Counseling on Fertility Preservation in Transgender Patients Presenting for Gender-affirming Orchiectomy

OBJECTIVE

To describe the characteristics of patients presenting for gender-affirming bilateral simple orchiectomy including interest in and prior education on reproductive options prior to gonad removal.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review evaluated patients seeking gender-affirming bilateral orchiectomy. Data collected included age, family history, history of fertility preservation education prior to gender-affirming hormone therapy initiation, prior fertility preservation, interest in fertility preservation, and postorchiectomy surgical pathology results where applicable.

RESULTS

The cohort included 78 patients. 22% (n = 17) indicated reproductive options were not discussed prior to surgical consultation. 85% (n = 66) were not interested in fertility preservation. Reasons included not having an interest in biological children (74%), not wanting to delay transition (47%), and cost (36%). Patients who were married or in long-term relationships had a higher interest in fertility preservation compared to patients who were not in long-term relationships. 40% of patients with pathology data available had at least some level of spermatogenesis present in their testicular tissue.

CONCLUSION

Fertility preservation counseling prior to surgical referral was lower than expected. This lack of counseling could result in patients not wanting to sperm bank prior to orchiectomy as it could delay their surgical care. Increased adherence to the WPATH guidelines may improve fertility preservation interest. Our data shows a low utilization and interest in sperm preservation for transwomen and nonbinary patients seeking bilateral simple orchiectomy at our institution. Improving counseling regarding fertility preservation options earlier in transition could improve utilization of sperm cryopreservation.

LGBTQI content on obstetrics and gynecology residency websites

BACKGROUND

In the United States (US), many obstetrics & gynecology (OB-GYN) trainees feel unprepared to care for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (LGBTQI) individuals, but interest in this topic is rising. Residency program websites are one way that directors can advertise whether this training is offered within their program. We aimed to describe the extent to which LGBTQI content is currently featured on OB-GYN residency websites across the country.

METHODS

We identified all OB-GYN residency programs in the United States using a publicly available database. We systematically searched for select LGBTQI keywords on program websites. We collected data on mentions of LGBTQI didactics and rotations. We also searched whether LGTBQI keywords were included in diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) statements. We used multivariable logistic regression to compare the characteristics of programs that do and do not include this content. We used STATA SE Version 16.0 for all analyses and set the level of significance at 5%.

RESULTS

We included 287/295 US OB-GYN residency programs in our analysis (97.3%) and excluded 8 that did not have websites. We identified any LGBTQI content on 50 program websites (17.4%), and specific mention of didactics or rotations on 8 websites (2.8%). On multivariable analysis, programs in the West were more likely to include any LGBTQI content compared to programs in the South (OR 2.81, 95%CI 1.04-7.63), as were programs with 1 or 2 fellowships (OR 3.41, 95%CI 1.43-8.14) or 3 or more fellowships (OR 4.85, 95%CI 2.03-11.57) compared to those without fellowships. Programs in departments led by female chairs were also more likely to include LBTQI content (OR 3.18, 95%CI 1.55-6.51).

CONCLUSIONS

Academic programs, West Coast programs, and those with departments led by female chairs are more likely to mention LGBTQI keywords on their websites. Given the increasing interest in LGBTQI education for OB-GYN trainees, program directors should consider providing training opportunities and including this content on their websites.

Biohacking Queer and Trans Fertility: Using Social Media to Form Communities of Knowledge

Biohacking involves individuals determining, developing, and directing relevant activities to meet their personal biological goals. Biohacking fertility is a resilient method that trans and genderqueer people use to meet their reproductive and family-planning needs in the face of historic medical marginalization and oppression. In this study, nine participants were recruited from three different Facebook groups specific to queer and trans fertility, family planning, pregnancy, and parenting. Each participant's posts and comments to their respective Facebook group(s) were analyzed, followed by interviews with participants. A total of 1,155 Facebook posts were collected. Biohacking activity-understood as a web of activity including gathering information, applying knowledge to personal circumstances, and sharing personal experiences and knowledge-was found in each of the three groups. Participants identified these online groups as safer spaces to learn more about their own fertility and find community. Participants were active in these groups to biohack their fertility at home and to become empowered at the doctor's office or fertility clinic, ultimately achieving agency in their fertility and family planning.

Expectations for family building, assisted reproduction, and adoption among lesbians in the National Survey of Family Growth, 2017-2019

Objective

To characterize the family-building goals and experiences of lesbians compared with those of heterosexual females in the United States.

Design

Secondary analysis of nationally representative, cross-sectional survey data.

Setting

National Survey of Family Growth 2017-2019.

Patients

159 reproductive-age lesbian respondents and 5,127 reproductive-age heterosexual respondents.

Interventions

We characterized family-building goals and the use of assisted reproduction and adoption among lesbians using nationally representative female respondent data from the 2017-2019 National Survey of Family Growth. We performed bivariate analyses examining variations in these outcomes between lesbian and heterosexual individuals.

Main Outcome Measures

Wantedness of children, use of assisted reproductive technology, and pursuit of adoption among reproductive-age lesbian and heterosexual participants.

Results

We identified 159 reproductive-age lesbian respondents of the National Survey of Family Growth, representing 2.3% or approximately 1.75 million US individuals of reproductive age. The lesbian respondents were younger, less religious, and less likely to have children than heterosexual respondents. These groups did not differ significantly by race/ethnicity, education, or income. More than half of the individuals reported wanting a child in the future, with proportions similar between the lesbian and heterosexual individuals (48% vs. 51%, respectively; P = .52). Accordingly, 18% of both the lesbian and heterosexual individuals reported that they would be greatly bothered if they were unable to have children. Nevertheless, health care providers reportedly asked the lesbians about their desire to get pregnant less frequently than they asked the heterosexual individuals (21% vs. 32%, respectively; P = .04). Only 26% of the lesbians had ever been pregnant compared with 64% of the heterosexual individuals (P<.01). Approximately one third (31%) of lesbians with medical insurance were seeking reproductive services compared with 10% of heterosexual individuals (P = .05). Lesbians were significantly more likely to be seeking adoption than heterosexual individuals (7.0% vs. 1.3%, respectively; P = .01), although they were more likely to report being turned down (17% vs. 10%, respectively; P = .03), not knowing why they were unable to adopt (19% vs. 1%, respectively; P = .02), and quitting because of the adoption process (100% vs. 45%, respectively; P = .04).

Conclusions

Approximately half of US females of reproductive age desire to have a child, a proportion that is not different between lesbian and heterosexual individuals. However, fewer lesbians are asked about their desires to get pregnant, and fewer ever become pregnant. Lesbians are significantly more likely to pursue assisted reproductive services when covered by insurance and more likely to seek adoption. Unfortunately, lesbians are more likely to face challenges with adoption.

Are funeral homes in the United States safe spaces for sexual and gender minorities? A website content analysis

LGBTQIA+ people, particularly those aging into end-of-life care decisions, need safety cues to identify safe spaces to access equitable death care. We conducted a website content analysis of 90 randomly selected funeral homes across the United States to evaluate the presence of LGBTQIA+ safety cues, such as inclusive language, symbols, imagery, and LGBTQIA+-friendly collaborations. Results showed that none of the selected funeral homes displayed any kind of safety cues. A significant change in funeral home marketing strategies is warranted so sexual and gender minorities can easily locate inclusive and affirming death care services.

Provision of fertility services to women in same-sex relationships at Catholic and non-Catholic clinics in the United States

INTRODUCTION

This study addressed deficient information on the provision of infertility care in obstetrics and gynecology clinics. We additionally evaluated the availability of these services based on clinic affiliations or stated sexual orientation.

METHODOLOGY

We performed a national cross-sectional "mystery caller" survey of 293 general obstetrics and gynecology clinics in 2017-2018. We matched clinics identified by web-based search engine in a 1:1 ratio by Catholic hospital affiliation, after determining number of clinics based on state-population densities. A standard call script included questions regarding provision of infertility services, ovulation induction methods, and information about the caller's sexual orientation. We performed descriptive frequencies and compared responses based on hospital affiliations.

RESULTS

Of the 293 clinics included, 49% were affiliated with Catholic and 17% with academic hospitals. The majority offered infertility care (85%, 248/293), and of these 97% (240/248) offered ovulation induction. Only 3% (6/240) reported they would not provide to women in same-sex relationships. Most clinics not offering infertility evaluations (43/45, 96%) cited it was outside of their scope of care and of these 33% (15/45) did not provide information for self-referral. Clinics affiliated with academic (aOR 0.23) or Catholic (aOR 0.34) hospitals were less likely to provide evaluations. Those with academic affiliation were more likely to provide information for self-referral (aOR 19.2).

DISCUSSION

Most general obstetrics and gynecology practices offered appointments for infertility evaluation and ovulation induction. Clinics rarely denied services to women reporting a same-sex partnership, regardless of hospital affiliation. These findings provide reassurance to same-sex couples seeking fertility care.

An assessment of oncofertility content on reproductive endocrinology and infertility clinic websites

PURPOSE

To assess oncofertility content on fertility clinic websites as indicated by eight relevant keywords. Additionally, we sought to describe the relationship between oncofertility content and five predetermined clinic characteristics.

METHODS

We examined 381 fertility clinic websites that are members of the Society for Associated Reproductive Technology (SART). Extracted data included clinic location, practice type (private vs academic), size (cycles/year), type of NCI designated center (cancer center vs comprehensive cancer center), and distance from the nearest NCI center. Additionally, we documented whether the clinic was located in a state mandating reproductive and infertility services and/or included fertility preservation for "iatrogenic infertility" as reported by the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM). Data were summarized using descriptive statistics and compared using chi-squared or t-test as appropriate.

RESULTS

Of the 381 fertility clinic websites analyzed, 322 (85%) contained at least one oncofertility-related keyword. Most frequently used terms included cancer (79%) and fertility preservation (78%), while less frequently used terms included suppression (9.4%) and shielding (5.0%). Practices that initiated ≥ 501 cycles per year were more likely to mention one of the oncofertility keywords (OR 1.2; 95% CI 1.1-1.3). The associations of oncofertility website content with practice type, state-mandated fertility insurance coverage, and distance from an NCI-designated cancer center were not statistically significant. Large clinic size was the only predictive factor for inclusion of oncofertility website content. Further studies are required to evaluate whether inclusion of oncofertility content on clinic websites impacts the use of these services by patients with cancer.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study correlating availability of oncofertility content on SART fertility clinic websites with consideration of geographic proximity to NCI designated cancer centers. Large clinic size was the only predictive factor for inclusion of oncofertility website content.

Laboring to Conceive: Reducing Barriers to Fertility Care for Same-Sex Mothers Pursuing Parenthood

Infertility clinics and providers in the United States have made efforts to become LGBTQ-inclusive, yet patients in same-sex partnerships continue to face disproportionate barriers to accessing fertility services when pursuing parenthood. This narrative case study of a same-sex couple’s “labor to conceive” illustrates some of the structural barriers to family building that lesbian mothers face when seeking fertility care, including insurance coverage of fertility treatments, federal regulations for sperm donation, and legal definitions of parenthood. Exclusionary medical and legal systems are discussed, as are the informal strategies that this same-sex couple utilized to negotiate and circumvent these barriers. A patient-centered model of advocacy that facilitates access to and protection of same-sex partners seeking (in)fertility services is presented. Intervention points at the (1) Logistical and (2) Societal levels are considered with respect to three domains of same-sex reproduction: (A) insurance; (B) sperm donation; (C) legal adoption.

Social media engagement with transgender fertility content

Objective

Design

Setting

Patient(s)

Intervention(s)

Main Outcome Measure(s)

Result(s)

Conclusion(s)

Fertility health information seeking among sexual minority women

OBJECTIVE

To qualitatively explore and describe fertility information-seeking experiences of sexual minority women (SMW) couples using assisted reproduction.

DESIGN

Qualitative thematic analysis of 30 semistructured, in-depth individual and dyadic interviews with SMW couples.

SETTING

Video conferencing.

PATIENT(S)

Twenty self-identified lesbian, bisexual, and queer women comprising 10 same-sex cisfemale couples (10 gestational and 10 nongestational partners) using assisted reproduction technology in the United States.

INTERVENTION(S)

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

We describe how SMW came to learn about ways to achieve pregnancy through information seeking, acquisition, appraisal, and use.

RESULT(S)

Analysis revealed three primary themes. First, uncertainty and information scarcity: SMW have basic knowledge about how to conceive but uncertainty persists due to information scarcity regarding how same-sex couples navigate assisted reproduction. Second, women attempt to collect fragmented information from disparate sources. The participants discussed a mixture of formal and informal, online, textual (books), and in-person seeking, finding, and synthesizing information that ranged from reliable to unreliable and from accurate to inaccurate. Finally, persistent heteronormative communication focused on the needs and conditions of male-female couples who experienced subfertility or infertility, rather than barriers related to social constraints and the absence of gametes that SMW sought to overcome.

CONCLUSION(S)

These findings support and extend existing evidence that has focused primarily on online fertility information seeking. Our findings suggest that shifts in fundamental assumptions about who seeks assisted reproductive support and why, together with improvements in fertility-related health communication, may result in more inclusive care for this population.

Genetic counselors' experiences with transgender individuals in prenatal and preconception settings

Many transgender individuals want to have children and are pursuing reproductive care. Limited research has described the experiences of transgender individuals during pregnancy, and no known studies have examined reproductive genetic counseling sessions with this patient population. To understand what topics and considerations are explored within this sector of reproductive care, prenatal and preconception genetic counselors that have seen a transgender patient and/or transgender partner of a patient were recruited through an email blast to members of the National Society of Genetic Counselors. Nine genetic counselors completed phone interviews. Content analysis was used to identify, quantify, and examine the concepts within the transcripts. Six major themes emerged: (1) Trans individuals were referred for common genetic counseling indications, (2) genetic counselors were driven to think of more inclusive language, (3) genetic counselors considered ways to make written materials more inclusive, (4) trans individuals expressed discomforts in the prenatal/preconception setting, (5) genetic counselors observed challenges with the care team, and (6) genetic counselors felt underprepared. This study identifies areas within reproductive spaces of genetic counseling that could be more inclusive, particularly relating to commonly used gendered language and written materials, and provides training recommendations for genetic counselors. Additionally, we outline the reported areas of discrimination for these patients and partners, and discuss ways that genetic counselors can be advocates for respectful and equitable care within their clinics.

Ethical Considerations of Fertility Preservation for Transmasculine and Nonbinary Youth

An increasing number of young adolescents who identify as transgender or nonbinary are presenting to the health care system for gender affirmation therapy before the full progression of puberty. Gender-affirming therapy may impair future fertility, but options exist for fertility preservation. This perspective reviews these options for transmasculine and nonbinary youth, and explores related ethical considerations. The authors support the right of transgender and nonbinary youth to utilize available reproductive technologies, provide recommendations for treating health professionals, and advocate for increased research efforts and tools to aid patient decision making.

Fertility Options for the Transgender and Gender Nonbinary Patient

Comprehensive care for transgender and gender nonbinary patients has been a priority established by the World Professional Association for Transgender Health. Because pubertal suppression, gender-affirming hormone therapy, and antiandrogen therapy used alone or in combination during medical transition can affect gonadal function, understanding the effects these treatments have on fertility potential is important for practitioners caring for transgender and gender nonbinary patients. In this review, we outline the impacts of gender-affirming treatments on fertility potential and discuss the counseling and the treatment approach for fertility preservation and/or family building in transgender and gender nonbinary individuals.

HIV-, HBV-, and HCV-Related Information on U.S. Fertility Clinic Websites: A Content Analysis

Purpose: People living with human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, or hepatitis C virus (PLHIV/HBV/HCV) face barriers to assisted reproductive technologies (ART), in part, due to laws and professional regulations mandating dedicated laboratory facilities and storage tanks for reproductive tissue to minimize theoretical risk of cross-contamination. These guidelines greatly increase the expense of providing equal care, however, fertility clinics are neither required to treat nor disclose whether they treat PLHIV/HBV/HCV. Clinics' websites are an important source of information regarding available services for prospective patients and referring providers. We assessed whether clinic websites disclose availability of ART for PLHIV/HBV/HCV.

Methods: Websites for Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology-accredited clinics in Northeast and South Atlantic United States were searched systematically for HIV-, HBV-, or HCV-specific content. Qualitative and thematic analysis was performed. Clinic characteristics (annual volume, practice setting) were collected.

Results: Of 136 websites, nine (6.6%) had information relevant to PLHIV seeking infertility treatment, and seven (5.1%) offered at least some treatments. Three clinics (2.2%) also mentioned treatment information relevant for PLHBV/HCV, one of which offered treatment. Information was often difficult to find or interpret. By contrast, 77/136 (56.6%) of clinics mentioned universally screening patients for HIV and 77/136 (56.6%) mentioned screening for HBV/HCV before ART.

Conclusion: Given economic disincentives to providing ART to PLHIV/HBV/HCV under current guidelines, the paucity of clinics openly offering treatment suggests a troubling lack of transparency or, possibly, a lack of available care. Further research should examine the impact of current guidelines and whether dedicated facilities and storage are medically indicated.

Transgender Men and the Gynecologist

Recently, greater attention has been paid to the care of gender dysphoric and gender incongruent individuals. Gynecologists may be called upon to care for individuals who were assigned female at birth throughout or following social, medical, or surgical gender transition. Thus, gynecologists need to be aware of language regarding sex and gender, treatment typically used for the care of gender dysphoric or incongruent individuals, and aspects of well gynecologic care necessary for these individuals. This review highlights these aspects of care for transgender males to aid the general gynecologist in the care and treatment of these individuals.

Fertility preservation options for transgender individuals

Gender affirming medical and surgical treatments affect the reproductive potential of transgender individuals. Prior to the development of assisted reproductive technologies (ART), genital gender-affirming surgery frequently eliminated a patient’s reproductive potential. Today, all patients should be counseled on their fertility preservation (FP) options before medical and surgical transition, yet this appears to seldom occur in practice. The following review is the result of a systematic literature search of PubMed, Medline and Google Scholar to identify current and future FP options, barriers to treatment patients face, practice patterns of transgender health care providers, and if there were any standardized counseling protocols. Options for transwomen at any point in their transition range from simply providing a semen sample to be used with assistive reproductive techniques to experimental techniques involving testicular cryopreservation followed by in vitro initiation of spermatogenesis. Transmen before and after starting hormone therapy can pursue any assistive reproductive techniques available for ciswomen. Future options currently under investigation include ovarian tissue cryopreservation (OTC) with in vitro oocyte maturation. In addition to counseling about their FP options, patients should be advised prospectively about the requirements, process details, the total costs associated with achieving pregnancy, and the inherent risks associated with using preserved genetic material including risk of failure, and maternal and fetal health risks. Transgender patients report using assistive reproductive services difficult, due to a lack of dialogue about fertility and the lack of information offered to them- presumably because their circumstances do not fit into a traditional narrative familiar to providers. Physicians and health care providers would benefit from better educational tools to help transgender patients make informed decisions and better training about transgender patients in general, and FP options available to them.

Double intrauterine insemination (IUI) of no benefit over single IUI among lesbian and single women seeking to conceive

PURPOSE

To explore clinical benefit of performing two intrauterine inseminations (IUI) 24 h apart-a double IUI vs. a single IUI among lesbian and single women.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study using electronic medical record review during a 17-year period (11/1999-3/2017). A total of 11,396 patients at a single academic-affiliated private practice were included in this study. All cycles with a single or double IUI were included. A sub-analysis of first cycles only (n = 10,413) was also performed. Canceled IVF cycles converted to IUI were excluded. T tests and Wilcoxon rank-sum tests were used for continuous data, and chi-square for categorical data. Multivariable logistic regression controlled for patient age, day 3 follicle-stimulating hormone (D3 FSH), body mass index (BMI), peak estradiol (E2), and post-wash total motile sperm counts to model the association between IUI number and ongoing pregnancy rate (OPR) according to sperm source (autologous vs. donor). Generalized estimating equations and mixed effect models accounted for multiple cycles from the same woman. Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% CI was determined. Sub-analyses of sexual orientation and partner status were performed to compare heterosexual couples with proven infertility to women with lesbian and single women.

RESULTS

During the study period, 22,452 cycles met inclusion criteria (single IUI 1283 vs. double IUI 21,169). Mean patient age and BMI were similar between groups. For couples using autologous sperm, OPR was significantly higher with double IUI (12.0% vs. 14.1%; p = 0.0380). A similar increase was observed for donor sperm OPR among heterosexual couples (14.4% vs. 16.2%), though this did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.395). A sub-analysis restricted to donor sperm demonstrates a clinical benefit of second IUI in heterosexual couples, 8.5% vs. 17.6% OPR (AOR 2.94; CI 1.00-10.99; p = 0.0496). When lesbian and single patients were evaluated, there was no difference (17.2% vs. 15.2%; AOR 0.99; CI 0.59-1.70; p = 0.0958).

CONCLUSIONS

Double IUI is associated with a significantly higher OPR for heterosexual couples using an autologous or donor sperm source. The benefit of a second IUI is less clear in patients with undocumented fertility status using donor sperm, such as single and lesbian women.

Fertility concerns of the transgender patient

Transgender individuals who undergo gender-affirming medical or surgical therapies are at risk for infertility. Suppression of puberty with gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist analogs (GnRHa) in the pediatric transgender patient can pause the maturation of germ cells, and thus, affect fertility potential. Testosterone therapy in transgender men can suppress ovulation and alter ovarian histology, while estrogen therapy in transgender women can lead to impaired spermatogenesis and testicular atrophy. The effect of hormone therapy on fertility is potentially reversible, but the extent is unclear. Gender-affirming surgery (GAS) that includes hysterectomy and oophorectomy in transmen or orchiectomy in transwomen results in permanent sterility. It is recommended that clinicians counsel transgender patients on fertility preservation (FP) options prior to initiation of gender-affirming therapy. Transmen can choose to undergo cryopreservation of oocytes or embryos, which requires hormonal stimulation for egg retrieval. Uterus preservation allows transmen to gestate if desired. For transwomen, the option for FP is cryopreservation of sperm either through masturbation or testicular sperm extraction. Experimental and future options may include cryopreservation and in vitro maturation of ovarian or testicular tissue, which could provide prepubertal transgender youth an option for FP since they lack mature gametes. Successful uterus transplantation with subsequent live birth is a new medical breakthrough for cisgender women with uterus factor infertility. Although it has not yet been performed in transgender women, uterus transplantation is a potential solution for those who wish to get pregnant. The transgender population faces many barriers to care, such as provider discrimination, lack of information, legal barriers, scarcity of fertility centers, financial burden, and emotional cost. Further research is necessary to investigate the feasibility of experimental FP options, provide better evidence-based information to clinicians and transgender patients alike, and to improve access to and quality of reproductive services for the transgender population.

I wish I had known sooner: stratified reproduction as a consequence of disparities in infertility awareness, diagnosis, and management

Infertility affects one in eight couples in the US, yet many couples report feeling blindsided by the diagnosis. Lack of awareness about infertility can lead to missed opportunities for prevention, delays in diagnosis, and greater emotional distress when a diagnosis is made. This paper reports on the results of interviews with 54 American women experiencing infertility, conducted via phone between 2013 and 2015 with participants from across the country. The interviews explored whether differences in infertility awareness were related to patient trajectories for time to diagnosis and initiation of treatment. Interview data indicated a significant lack of informational resources for these women concerned about fertility. Older participants expressed regret that they were not educated about age-related fertility decline, while patients with infertility secondary to medical conditions often reported delays in diagnosis and lack of counseling about fertility implications. Participants' data also revealed that infertility was consistently absent from sex education curricula and that minorities may be more likely to experience delayed diagnosis of infertility and lack of appropriate fertility counseling. These findings suggest that the inequitable distribution of health information and education about reproduction is one mechanism by which experiences of infertility can become racially stratified.

Constructing queer mother-knowledge and negotiating medical authority in online lesbian pregnancy journals

Medical interactions around reproduction are increasingly extending beyond the physician's office and onto the Internet, where negotiation with medical authority occurs in complex and dynamic ways. Recently, scholars have noted the Internet's potential for creating spaces where women can dialogue with and reconstruct medical authority, yet this growing body of work is overwhelming heteronormative. This paper thus interrogates how lesbian women use the Internet to challenge, deploy, and rework medical authority around reproduction while navigating the transition to parenthood. I draw from 17 online journals authored by lesbian couples during the conception, pregnancy, and birth of their first child, each spanning between 18 months and 2 years, in order to understand how the transition process unfolds over time. I argue that lesbian couples engage with medical authority when seeking affirmation and normalisation yet discard and publicly reject the heteronormative assumptions that accompany reproductive medicine. Further, they chart a new process that I term 'constructing queer mother-knowledge', in which they critique and balance knowledges from institutionalised medicine, their own bodies, and their queer communities. With this new concept, I complicate understandings of lesbian mothers-to-be and their interactions with medical authority as they build subversive families.

A limited market: the recruitment of gay men as surrogacy clients by the infertility industry in the USA

Gestational surrogacy via egg donation is an expensive - and sometimes ambivalently undertaken - but increasingly popular route to planned fatherhood for some gay men. The surrogacy market in the USA plays an important role for gay men with the financial resources to access these services, as it is currently the only stable, commercial market in which there are legal protections for openly gay men. While a small, ethnographic and qualitative literature on the experiences of gay fathers via surrogacy exists, less is known about the state of the surrogacy industry towards gay men as clients. Here I investigate the surrogacy industry in the USA to ask how welcome gay men are in this market. I do so via a content analysis of patient/client recruitment on infertility clinic and surrogacy agency websites. Content analysis of 547 websites indicates that the majority of infertility clinics (62%) and 42% of surrogacy agencies do not directly advertise or appear to be welcoming to gay men. A minority of gay-friendly clinics and agencies, which cluster geographically, actively recruit gay men, creating a limited but niche market. The unequal recruitment of gay men as infertility clients reflects how normative ideas about gender, sexuality and social class are reproduced in the infertility industry. This, in turn, may impact gay men's procreative consciousness and decision-making about parenting, and exacerbate inequalities around their access to intentional genetic parenthood.