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Azharuddin M, Roberg K, Dhara AK, Jain MV, Darcy P, Hinkula J, Slater NKH, Patra HK. Dissecting multi drug resistance in head and neck cancer cells using multicellular tumor spheroids. Sci Rep 2019; 9:20066. [PMID: 31882620 PMCID: PMC6934860 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-56273-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the hallmarks of cancers is their ability to develop resistance against therapeutic agents. Therefore, developing effective in vitro strategies to identify drug resistance remains of paramount importance for successful treatment. One of the ways cancer cells achieve drug resistance is through the expression of efflux pumps that actively pump drugs out of the cells. To date, several studies have investigated the potential of using 3-dimensional (3D) multicellular tumor spheroids (MCSs) to assess drug resistance; however, a unified system that uses MCSs to differentiate between multi drug resistance (MDR) and non-MDR cells does not yet exist. In the present report we describe MCSs obtained from post-diagnosed, pre-treated patient-derived (PTPD) cell lines from head and neck squamous cancer cells (HNSCC) that often develop resistance to therapy. We employed an integrated approach combining response to clinical drugs and screening cytotoxicity, monitoring real-time drug uptake, and assessing transporter activity using flow cytometry in the presence and absence of their respective specific inhibitors. The report shows a comparative response to MDR, drug efflux capability and reactive oxygen species (ROS) activity to assess the resistance profile of PTPD MCSs and two-dimensional (2D) monolayer cultures of the same set of cell lines. We show that MCSs provide a robust and reliable in vitro model to evaluate clinical relevance. Our proposed strategy can also be clinically applicable for profiling drug resistance in cancers with unknown resistance profiles, which consequently can indicate benefit from downstream therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Azharuddin
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine (IKE), Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Karin Roberg
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine (IKE), Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology in Linköping, Anaesthetics, Operations and Specialty Surgery Center, Region Östergötland, Östergötland, Sweden.
| | - Ashis Kumar Dhara
- Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Durgapur, Durgapur, India
| | - Mayur Vilas Jain
- Division of Molecular Medicine and Gene Therapy, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Padraig Darcy
- Department of Medical and Health Sciences (IMH), Division of Drug Research (LÄFO), Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Jorma Hinkula
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine (IKE), Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Nigel K H Slater
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Hirak K Patra
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine (IKE), Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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Ascorbyl stearate stimulates cell death by oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in HeLa cervical cancer cell line in vitro. 3 Biotech 2019; 9:115. [PMID: 30863699 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-019-1628-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, Asc-s was evaluated for anti-cancer effect using cervical cancer cells (HeLa). Results determine that Asc-s treatment-induced dose-dependent inhibition of proliferation of HeLa cells and induced apoptosis. Flow-cytometry analysis shows Asc-s treatment-induced accumulation of cells at sub-G0/G1 stage of cell cycle and induced apoptosis as confirmed by DAPI, propodium iodide, and acridine staining in HeLa cells. Asc-s entered the cells and metabolized to ascorbate and stearate moieties, increased membrane permeability, and decreased membrane fluidity in HeLa cells. Asc-s treatment-induced dose-dependent increase in autophagy protein LC3-II, mRNA levels and decreased Nrf-2 levels in HeLa cells. It is hypothesized that both ascorbyl radical and stearoyl moieties of Asc-s induced cytotoxicity by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) and modulating membrane fluidity/permeability leading to apoptosis/autophagy of HeLa cells. Thus, our findings demonstrate that Asc-s as anti-proliferative and apoptosis inducing compound in cervical cancer cells.
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van der Waals LM, Laoukili J, Jongen JMJ, Raats DA, Borel Rinkes IHM, Kranenburg O. Differential anti-tumour effects of MTH1 inhibitors in patient-derived 3D colorectal cancer cultures. Sci Rep 2019; 9:819. [PMID: 30692572 PMCID: PMC6349914 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37316-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) function as second messengers in signal transduction, but high ROS levels can also cause cell death. MTH1 dephosphorylates oxidized nucleotides, thereby preventing their incorporation into DNA and protecting tumour cells from oxidative DNA damage. Inhibitors of MTH1 (TH588 and (S)-crizotinib) were shown to reduce cancer cell viability. However, the MTH1-dependency of the anti-cancer effects of these drugs has recently been questioned. Here, we have assessed anti-tumour effects of TH588 and (S)-crizotinib in patient-derived 3D colorectal cancer cultures. Hypoxia and reoxygenation – conditions that increase intracellular ROS levels – increased sensitivity to (S)-crizotinib, but not to TH588. (S)-crizotinib reduced tyrosine phosphorylation of c-MET and ErbB3 whereas TH588 induced a mitotic cell cycle arrest, which was not affected by adding ROS-modulating compounds. Furthermore, we show that both compounds induced DNA damage that could not be prevented by adding the ROS inhibitor N-acetyl-L-cysteine. Moreover, adding ROS-modulating compounds did not alter the reduction in viability in response to TH588 and (S)-crizotinib. We conclude that TH588 and (S)-crizotinib have very clear and distinct anti-tumour effects in 3D colorectal cancer cultures, but that these effects most likely occur through distinct and ROS-independent mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lizet M van der Waals
- Laboratory Translational Oncology, UMC Utrecht Cancer Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jamila Laoukili
- Laboratory Translational Oncology, UMC Utrecht Cancer Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jennifer M J Jongen
- Laboratory Translational Oncology, UMC Utrecht Cancer Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Danielle A Raats
- Laboratory Translational Oncology, UMC Utrecht Cancer Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Inne H M Borel Rinkes
- Laboratory Translational Oncology, UMC Utrecht Cancer Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Onno Kranenburg
- Laboratory Translational Oncology, UMC Utrecht Cancer Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Grässer U, Bubel M, Sossong D, Oberringer M, Pohlemann T, Metzger W. Dissociation of mono- and co-culture spheroids into single cells for subsequent flow cytometric analysis. Ann Anat 2018; 216:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Revised: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Mane SD, Kamatham AN. Ascorbyl stearate and ionizing radiation potentiate apoptosis through intracellular thiols and oxidative stress in murine T lymphoma cells. Chem Biol Interact 2018; 281:37-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2017.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Revised: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Mittler F, Obeïd P, Rulina AV, Haguet V, Gidrol X, Balakirev MY. High-Content Monitoring of Drug Effects in a 3D Spheroid Model. Front Oncol 2017; 7:293. [PMID: 29322028 PMCID: PMC5732143 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2017.00293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A recent decline in the discovery of novel medications challenges the widespread use of 2D monolayer cell assays in the drug discovery process. As a result, the need for more appropriate cellular models of human physiology and disease has renewed the interest in spheroid 3D culture as a pertinent model for drug screening. However, despite technological progress that has significantly simplified spheroid production and analysis, the seeming complexity of the 3D approach has delayed its adoption in many laboratories. The present report demonstrates that the use of a spheroid model may be straightforward and can provide information that is not directly available with a standard 2D approach. We describe a cost-efficient method that allows for the production of an array of uniform spheroids, their staining with vital dyes, real-time monitoring of drug effects, and an ATP-endpoint assay, all in the same 96-well U-bottom plate. To demonstrate the method performance, we analyzed the effect of the preclinical anticancer drug MLN4924 on spheroids formed by VCaP and LNCaP prostate cancer cells. The drug has different outcomes in these cell lines, varying from cell cycle arrest and protective dormancy to senescence and apoptosis. We demonstrate that by using high-content analysis of spheroid arrays, the effect of the drug can be described as a series of EC50 values that clearly dissect the cytostatic and cytotoxic drug actions. The method was further evaluated using four standard cancer chemotherapeutics with different mechanisms of action, and the effect of each drug is described as a unique multi-EC50 diagram. Once fully validated in a wider range of conditions, this method could be particularly valuable for phenotype-based drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patricia Obeïd
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INSERM, BIG, BGE, Grenoble, France
| | - Anastasia V. Rulina
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INSERM, BIG, BGE, Grenoble, France
- Université Lyon 1, ENS de Lyon, INSERM, CNRS, CIRI, Lyon, France
| | - Vincent Haguet
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INSERM, BIG, BGE, Grenoble, France
| | - Xavier Gidrol
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INSERM, BIG, BGE, Grenoble, France
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Jabs J, Zickgraf FM, Park J, Wagner S, Jiang X, Jechow K, Kleinheinz K, Toprak UH, Schneider MA, Meister M, Spaich S, Sütterlin M, Schlesner M, Trumpp A, Sprick M, Eils R, Conrad C. Screening drug effects in patient-derived cancer cells links organoid responses to genome alterations. Mol Syst Biol 2017; 13:955. [PMID: 29180611 PMCID: PMC5731348 DOI: 10.15252/msb.20177697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2017] [Revised: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer drug screening in patient-derived cells holds great promise for personalized oncology and drug discovery but lacks standardization. Whether cells are cultured as conventional monolayer or advanced, matrix-dependent organoid cultures influences drug effects and thereby drug selection and clinical success. To precisely compare drug profiles in differently cultured primary cells, we developed DeathPro, an automated microscopy-based assay to resolve drug-induced cell death and proliferation inhibition. Using DeathPro, we screened cells from ovarian cancer patients in monolayer or organoid culture with clinically relevant drugs. Drug-induced growth arrest and efficacy of cytostatic drugs differed between the two culture systems. Interestingly, drug effects in organoids were more diverse and had lower therapeutic potential. Genomic analysis revealed novel links between drug sensitivity and DNA repair deficiency in organoids that were undetectable in monolayers. Thus, our results highlight the dependency of cytostatic drugs and pharmacogenomic associations on culture systems, and guide culture selection for drug tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Jabs
- Division of Theoretical Bioinformatics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Center for Quantitative Analysis of Molecular and Cellular Biosystems (BioQuant), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department for Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics, Institute for Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology (IPMB) and BioQuant, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Franziska M Zickgraf
- Heidelberg Institute for Stem Cell Technology and Experimental Medicine (HI-STEM) gGmbH, Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Stem Cells and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jeongbin Park
- Division of Theoretical Bioinformatics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department for Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics, Institute for Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology (IPMB) and BioQuant, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Steve Wagner
- Heidelberg Institute for Stem Cell Technology and Experimental Medicine (HI-STEM) gGmbH, Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Stem Cells and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Xiaoqi Jiang
- Division of Biostatistics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Katharina Jechow
- Division of Theoretical Bioinformatics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Center for Quantitative Analysis of Molecular and Cellular Biosystems (BioQuant), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kortine Kleinheinz
- Division of Theoretical Bioinformatics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Center for Quantitative Analysis of Molecular and Cellular Biosystems (BioQuant), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department for Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics, Institute for Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology (IPMB) and BioQuant, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Umut H Toprak
- Division of Theoretical Bioinformatics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marc A Schneider
- Thoraxklinik at Heidelberg University Hospital, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michael Meister
- Thoraxklinik at Heidelberg University Hospital, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Saskia Spaich
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, University Medical Centre Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Marc Sütterlin
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, University Medical Centre Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Matthias Schlesner
- Division of Theoretical Bioinformatics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andreas Trumpp
- Heidelberg Institute for Stem Cell Technology and Experimental Medicine (HI-STEM) gGmbH, Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Stem Cells and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Martin Sprick
- Heidelberg Institute for Stem Cell Technology and Experimental Medicine (HI-STEM) gGmbH, Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Stem Cells and Cancer, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Roland Eils
- Division of Theoretical Bioinformatics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Center for Quantitative Analysis of Molecular and Cellular Biosystems (BioQuant), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department for Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics, Institute for Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology (IPMB) and BioQuant, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
- Heidelberg Center for Personalized Oncology, DKFZ-HIPO, DKFZ, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christian Conrad
- Division of Theoretical Bioinformatics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Center for Quantitative Analysis of Molecular and Cellular Biosystems (BioQuant), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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8
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3D tumor spheroids: an overview on the tools and techniques used for their analysis. Biotechnol Adv 2016; 34:1427-1441. [PMID: 27845258 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 482] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2015] [Revised: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In comparison with 2D cell culture models, 3D spheroids are able to accurately mimic some features of solid tumors, such as their spatial architecture, physiological responses, secretion of soluble mediators, gene expression patterns and drug resistance mechanisms. These unique characteristics highlight the potential of 3D cellular aggregates to be used as in vitro models for screening new anticancer therapeutics, both at a small and large scale. Nevertheless, few reports have focused on describing the tools and techniques currently available to extract significant biological data from these models. Such information will be fundamental to drug and therapeutic discovery process using 3D cell culture models. The present review provides an overview of the techniques that can be employed to characterize and evaluate the efficacy of anticancer therapeutics in 3D tumor spheroids.
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Heerma van Voss MR, Vesuna F, Trumpi K, Brilliant J, Berlinicke C, de Leng W, Kranenburg O, Offerhaus GJ, Bürger H, van der Wall E, van Diest PJ, Raman V. Identification of the DEAD box RNA helicase DDX3 as a therapeutic target in colorectal cancer. Oncotarget 2016; 6:28312-26. [PMID: 26311743 PMCID: PMC4695062 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.4873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Identifying druggable targets in the Wnt-signaling pathway can optimize colorectal cancer treatment. Recent studies have identified a member of the RNA helicase family DDX3 (DDX3X) as a multilevel activator of Wnt signaling in cells without activating mutations in the Wnt-signaling pathway. In this study, we evaluated whether DDX3 plays a role in the constitutively active Wnt pathway that drives colorectal cancer. We determined DDX3 expression levels in 303 colorectal cancers by immunohistochemistry. 39% of tumors overexpressed DDX3. High cytoplasmic DDX3 expression correlated with nuclear β-catenin expression, a marker of activated Wnt signaling. Functionally, we validated this finding in vitro and found that inhibition of DDX3 with siRNA resulted in reduced TCF4-reporter activity and lowered the mRNA expression levels of downstream TCF4-regulated genes. In addition, DDX3 knockdown in colorectal cancer cell lines reduced proliferation and caused a G1 arrest, supporting a potential oncogenic role of DDX3 in colorectal cancer. RK-33 is a small molecule inhibitor designed to bind to the ATP-binding site of DDX3. Treatment of colorectal cancer cell lines and patient-derived 3D cultures with RK-33 inhibited growth and promoted cell death with IC50 values ranging from 2.5 to 8 μM. The highest RK-33 sensitivity was observed in tumors with wild-type APC-status and a mutation in CTNNB1. Based on these results, we conclude that DDX3 has an oncogenic role in colorectal cancer. Inhibition of DDX3 with the small molecule inhibitor RK-33 causes inhibition of Wnt signaling and may therefore be a promising future treatment strategy for a subset of colorectal cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marise R Heerma van Voss
- Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Farhad Vesuna
- Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kari Trumpi
- Department of Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Justin Brilliant
- Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Cynthia Berlinicke
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Wendy de Leng
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Onno Kranenburg
- Department of Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - G Johan Offerhaus
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Elsken van der Wall
- Department of Internal Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Paul J van Diest
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Venu Raman
- Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Kuksin D, Kuksin CA, Qiu J, Chan LLY. Cellometer image cytometry as a complementary tool to flow cytometry for verifying gated cell populations. Anal Biochem 2016; 503:1-7. [PMID: 27033005 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2016.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2016] [Revised: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Traditionally, many cell-based assays that analyze cell populations and functionalities have been performed using flow cytometry. However, flow cytometers remain relatively expensive and require highly trained operators for routine maintenance and data analysis. Recently, an image cytometry system has been developed by Nexcelom Bioscience (Lawrence, MA, USA) for automated cell concentration and viability measurement using bright-field and fluorescent imaging methods. Image cytometry is analogous to flow cytometry in that gating operations can be performed on the cell population based on size and fluorescent intensity. In addition, the image cytometer is capable of capturing bright-field and fluorescent images, allowing for the measurement of cellular size and fluorescence intensity data. In this study, we labeled a population of cells with an enzymatic vitality stain (calcein-AM) and a cell viability dye (propidium iodide) and compared the data generated by flow and image cytometry. We report that measuring vitality and viability using the image cytometer is as effective as flow cytometric assays and allows for visual confirmation of the sample to exclude cellular debris. Image cytometry offers a direct method for performing fluorescent cell-based assays but also may be used as a complementary tool to flow cytometers for aiding the analysis of more complex samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitry Kuksin
- Department of Technology R&D, Nexcelom Bioscience, Lawrence, MA, 01843, USA
| | - Christina Arieta Kuksin
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Jean Qiu
- Department of Technology R&D, Nexcelom Bioscience, Lawrence, MA, 01843, USA
| | - Leo Li-Ying Chan
- Department of Technology R&D, Nexcelom Bioscience, Lawrence, MA, 01843, USA.
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