Characterisations of kabuli and desi chickpea starches cultivated in China

Unlocking the nutritional potential of chickpea: strategies for biofortification and enhanced multinutrient quality

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a vital grain legume, offering an excellent balance of protein, carbohydrates, fats, fiber, essential micronutrients, and vitamins that can contribute to addressing the global population's increasing food and nutritional demands. Chickpea protein offers a balanced source of amino acids with high bioavailability. Moreover, due to its balanced nutrients and affordable price, chickpea is an excellent alternative to animal protein, offering a formidable tool for combating hidden hunger and malnutrition, particularly prevalent in low-income countries. This review examines chickpea's nutritional profile, encompassing protein, amino acids, carbohydrates, fatty acids, micronutrients, vitamins, antioxidant properties, and bioactive compounds of significance in health and pharmaceutical domains. Emphasis is placed on incorporating chickpeas into diets for their myriad health benefits and nutritional richness, aimed at enhancing human protein and micronutrient nutrition. We discuss advances in plant breeding and genomics that have facilitated the discovery of diverse genotypes and key genomic variants/regions/quantitative trait loci contributing to enhanced macro- and micronutrient contents and other quality parameters. Furthermore, we explore the potential of innovative breeding tools such as CRISPR/Cas9 in enhancing chickpea's nutritional profile. Envisioning chickpea as a nutritionally smart crop, we endeavor to safeguard food security, combat hunger and malnutrition, and promote dietary diversity within sustainable agrifood systems.

Effects of repeated and continuous dry heat treatments on the physicochemical, structural, and in vitro digestion properties of chickpea starch

The study investigated the impacts of repeated (RDH) and continuous dry heat (CDH) treatments on the physicochemical, structural, and in vitro digestion properties of chickpea starch. The results of SEM and CLSM showed that more fissures and holes appeared on the surface of granules as the treated time of CDH and the circles of RDH increased, both of which made the starch sample much easier to break down by digestive enzymes. Moreover, the fissures and holes of starch granules treated by CDH were more obvious than those of RDH. The XRD and FT-IR results suggested that the crystal type remained C-type, and the relative crystallinity and R1047/1022 of the chickpea starch decreased after dry heat treatments. In addition, a marked decline in the pasting viscosity and gelatinization temperature of chickpea starches was found with dry heat treatments. Moreover, the increased enzyme accessibility of starch was fitted as suggested by the increased RDS content and digestion rate. This study provided basic data for the rational design of chickpea starch-based foods with nutritional functions.

Effect of different heat-moisture treatment times on the structure, physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of japonica starch

Modified starch was prepared from japonica starch (JS) by heat-moisture treatments (HMT). Under the same moisture content and HMT temperature, the effects of various HMT times on the structural, properties of JS and its in vitro digestibility properties were investigated. The results showed that adhesion occurred between the particles of japonica starch after the HMT, and there were depressions on the surface. The size of the JS particles increased, the short-range ordering and relative crystallinity of the HMT-modified starch increased and gradually decreased, reaching a peak of 36.51 % at 6 h, as the HMT time was extended. The pasting indexes of HMT-modified starch decreased and then increased with the increase of the HMT time; compared with JS, the thermal stability of HMT-modified starch increased while the pasting enthalpy decreased. All the HMT-modified starches were weakly gelatinous systems and pseudoplastic fluids. Following HMT, the amount of resistant starch (RS) and slowly digested starch (SDS) grew initially before declining. The amount of RS in HMT-modified starch peaked at 24.28 % when the HMT time was 6 h. The results of this research can serve as a theoretical foundation for the creation of modified japonica starch and its use in the food industry.

Modification of Starches and Flours by Acetylation and Its Dual Modifications: A Review of Impact on Physicochemical Properties and Their Applications

Various modification treatments have been carried out to improve the physicochemical and functional properties of various types of starch and flour. Modification by acetylation has been widely used to improve the quality and stability of starch. This review describes the effects of acetylation modification and its dual modifications on the physicochemical properties of starch/flour and their applications. Acetylation can increase swelling power, swelling volume, water/oil absorption capacity, and retrogradation stability. The dual modification of acetylation with cross-linking or hydrothermal treatment can improve the thermal stability of starch/flour. However, the results of the modifications may vary depending on the type of starch, reagents, and processing methods. Acetylated starch can be used as an encapsulant for nanoparticles, biofilms, adhesives, fat replacers, and other products with better paste stability and clarity. A comparison of various characteristics of acetylated starches and their dual modifications is expected to be a reference for developing and applying acetylated starches/flours in various fields and products.

Physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of highland barley starch with different extraction methods

The objective of this study was to compare the structural, thermal, rheological and digestive properties of highland barley starch (HBS) by different extraction methods. Five techniques were used to extract HBS: Alkali extraction, Ultrasound extraction, double enzyme extraction (DE), three enzyme extraction (TE) and ultrasonic assisted TE (U-TE). The results indicated that the Ultrasound extracted HBS had fewer Maltese crosses, lower molecular weight (Mw), and higher content of damaged starch (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, DE extracted HBS had higher Mw, and the content of short amylopectin than that of Alkali extracted HBS (P < 0.05). Additionally, the DE extracted HBS showed the highest relative crystallinity and good short-range ordered structure, which led to the outcome of stronger thermal stability and higher values of G' and G'' (P < 0.05). These results indicated that enzymatic extraction could better protect the resistance of HBS by protecting its physicochemical properties.

The influence of protein concentration on key quality attributes of chickpea-based alternatives to cheese

In response to consumer demands, plant protein ingredients are increasingly being used in the formulation of plant-based alternatives to cheese. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of protein concentration on key quality attributes of chickpea-based alternatives to cheese. Moreover, the age-induced changes in such attributes were assessed, with samples analysed after 1 month of storage. After characterisation of the ingredients, the chickpea-based formulations were prepared by blending chickpea flour and protein concentrate in different proportions to obtain four samples of increasing protein content (i.e., 8.68-21.5%). Formulations were developed at pH ∼4.5, and a moisture content of 50%, with shea butter used to obtain 15% fat content. The differential scanning calorimetry thermograms of the samples showed a main peak around 30 °C, corresponding to transition of the shea butter, and a smaller peak around 70 °C related to starch gelatinisation. Analysis of microstructure showed formation of a protein matrix with more extensive protein structure at high protein concentration. Furthermore, none of the chickpea-based samples melted under the testing conditions and all samples showed increasing values for adhesiveness, springiness and cohesiveness with increasing protein content. However, hardness was the highest for the sample with the lowest protein content, likely due to starch retrogradation. After storage, hardness increased further for all samples. This work improves our understanding of the role of chickpea protein in developing plant-based alternatives to cheese and the challenges therein.

Chemical composition of kabuli and desi chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars grown in Xinjiang, China

Chickpeas are a very important legume crop and have abundant protein, carbohydrate, lipid, fiber, isoflavone, and mineral contents. The chemical compositions of the four chickpea species (Muying-1, Keying-1, Desi-1, Desi-2) from Xinjiang, China, were analyzed, and 46 different flavonoids in Muying-1 were detected. The moisture content ranged from 7.64 ± 0.01 to 7.89 ± 0.02 g/100 g, the content of starch in the kabuli chickpeas was greater than that in the desi chickpeas, the total ash content ranged from 2.59 ± 0.05 to 2.69 ± 0.03 g/100 g and the vitamin B₁ content of the chickpeas ranged from 0.31 to 0.36 mg/100 g. The lipid content ranged from 6.35 to 9.35 g/100 g and the major fatty acids of chickpeas were linoleic, oleic, and palmitic acids. Both kabuli and desi chickpeas have a high content of unsaturated fatty acids (USFAs), Muying-1 and Desi-1 contained the highest level of linoleic acid, and Keying-1 had the highest oleic acid content. The protein level ranged from 19.79 ± 2.89 to 23.38 ± 0.30 g/100 g, and the main amino acids were aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and arginine acid. The four chickpea species had significant amounts of essential amino acids (EAAs). Forty-six varieties of flavonoids in Muying-1 were determined by ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-QqQ-MS) analysis, and there were higher levels of conjugate flavonoids (55.95%) than free flavonoids (44.05%). Isoflavones were the most abundant flavonoids in Muying-1, and among the isoflavones, daidzin had the highest content, followed by biochanin A and genistin. Muying-1 was rich in daidzin, biochanin A, genistin, troxerutin, isorhamnetin, astilbin, L-epicatechin, astragalin, acacetin, hyperoside, and myricitrin. Information provided in the study will be helpful to further understand the chemical composition of chickpeas and be beneficial to the development of chickpeas.

Chickpea protein ingredients: A review of composition, functionality, and applications

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a pulse consumed all over the world, representing a good source of protein, as well as fat, fiber, and other carbohydrates. As a result of the growing global population the demand for the protein component of this pulse is increasing and various approaches have been proposed and developed to extract same. In this review the composition, functionality, and applications of chickpea protein ingredients are described. Moreover, methods to enhance protein quality have been identified, as well as applications of the coproducts resulting from protein extraction and processing. The principal dry and wet protein enrichment approaches, resulting in protein concentrates and isolates, include air classification, alkaline/acid extraction, salt extraction, isoelectric precipitation, and membrane filtration. Chickpea proteins exhibit good functional properties such as solubility, water and oil absorption capacity, emulsifying, foaming, and gelling. During protein enrichment, the functionality of protein can be enhanced in addition to primary processing (e.g., germination and dehulling, fermentation, enzymatic treatments). Different applications of chickpea protein ingredients, and their coproducts, have been identified in research, highlighting the potential of these ingredients for novel product development and improvement of the nutritional profile of existing food products. Formulations to meet consumer needs in terms of healthy and sustainable foods have been investigated in the literature and can be further explored. Future research may be useful to improve applications of the specific coproducts that result from the extraction of chickpea proteins, thereby leading to more sustainable processes.

Starch molecular fine structure is associated with protein composition in chickpea seed

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) seed is a nutritional food high in starch and protein. This study aims to find the relationships between the molecular fine structure of starch and the composition of storage proteins and metabolic enzymes, using different chickpea varieties. It is found that storage proteins and starch biosynthetic enzymes influence each other. The initial formation of amylopectin molecules is affected by storage proteins, as suggested by the positive correlation (p < 0.01) between the average molecular size of amylopectin and total protein content. In addition, a higher amount of seed globulin could be an indication of higher amylose content and more short - medium amylose chains (degree of polymerization, DP, 118-2000). This study might assist selection of chickpea varieties with desirable qualities, such as low starch digestibility.

Highland barley starch (Qingke): Structures, properties, modifications, and applications

Highland barley (HB) is mainly composed of starch, which may account for up to 65% of the dry weight to the kernel. HB possesses unique physical and chemical properties and has good industrial application potential. It has also been identified as a minor grain crop with excellent nutritional and health functions. Highland barley starch (HBS) features a number of structural and functional properties that render it a useful material for numerous food and non-food applications. This review summarizes the current status of research on the extraction processes, chemical composition, molecular fine structures, granular morphology, physicochemical properties, digestibility, chemical and physical modifications, and potential uses of HBS. The findings provide a comprehensive reference for further research on HBS and its applications in various food and non-food industries.

Modeling of in vitro digestion behavior of corn starches of different digestibility using modified log of slope (LOS) method

This study aimed to further improve the previously described first-order equation representing in vitro digestion of starch by extensively explaining modified log of slope (LOS) plot method. Hydrolysis curves of various starches were analyzed using original and/or modified LOS plot methods. Some starches showed significant differences in the results from the two methods; specifically, the modified method better described the digestive behavior of starch with various digestion properties, supported by higher determination coefficient values and better estimation of the digestibility data over digestive phase. The digestion parameters obtained from the modified method provided multiple types of information, including amount and digestion rate of each starch fraction (rapidly digestible, slowly digestible, and resistant starch), supporting the concept of digestible fraction classification. Therefore, the modified LOS plot method described here can be applied as an effective tool for analyzing and describing the multi-scale in vitro digestion behavior of starch.

Effect of drying treatment on the structural characterizations and physicochemical properties of starch from canistel (Lucuma nervosa A.DC)

This work investigated the effects of hot air drying pretreatment (HAD), freeze drying pretreatment (FD) and vacuum drying pretreatment (VD) on the physicochemical properties and structural characterizations of starch isolated from canistels. X-ray diffraction displayed that the starches separated from canistel by different drying pretreatments showed a typical A-type crystal structure. The SEM image showed that cracks and debris appeared on the surface of HVD and VD particles. The molecular structure of starches obtained by different drying pretreatments was studied using Fourier infrared and solid state ¹³C CP/MAS NMR analysis. The results indicated that vacuum drying pretreatment could promote the formation of the double helix of starch granules, and hot air drying and freeze drying destroyed the ordered structure of starch granules. These structural changed to affect the physicochemical properties of starch granules. The study of different drying pretreatments to separate starches provided practical value for drying pretreatments. Furthermore, the current study affords information for canistel starches cultivated in China that would be convenient for commercial applications.

Effects of various oil extraction methods on the gelatinization and retrogradation properties of starches isolated from tigernut (Cyperus esculentus) tuber meals

Gelatinization and retrogradation characteristics of starches from tigernut (Cyperus esculentus) tuber before and after various oil extraction processes were studied in this investigation. The results indicated that starches isolated from tigernut tuber after the various oil extraction processes varied significantly in gelatinization and retrogradation properties. The starches isolated from the cakes of tigernut tuber after hot press extraction exhibited higher retrogradation tendency and relatively less shear-thinning than other starch samples. The results of FT-IR, XRD, and NMR analysis indicated that oil extraction had an unfavorable influence on starch retrogradation, which may be due to structural changes caused by oil extraction processes. In particular, oil extraction led to more efficient packing of double helices in the crystalline lamella of the starches during storage. Retrogradation of the starch gels also reduced the water holding capacities of the starches. The starch sample isolated from the cake after cold press extraction exhibited the highest water absorption capacity among the five samples for all storage times. This investigation provides valuable novel information for the industrial utilization of tigernut tuber starches isolated from meals and cakes after oil extraction.

Effect of Hydrocolloid Gums on the Pasting, Thermal, Rheological and Textural Properties of Chickpea Starch

The study was planned to evaluate the effect of non-commercial gums as compared to commercial gums. The concentration dependent effect of two commercial (arabic, xanthan) and four non-commercial (cress seed, fenugreek, flaxseed, okra) polysaccharide gums on the pasting, rheological, textural and thermal properties of chickpea were investigated by rapid visco analyzer (RVA), hybrid rheometer, texture analyzer and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Blends were prepared by replacing chickpea starch at 0.5% and 2.0% with gums, whereas native chickpea starch was used as a control. RVA data showed that peak and final viscosities were dramatically increased with xanthan contrary to reduction with gum arabic, flaxseed and okra gums. Hybrid rheometer displayed that storage and loss moduli were increased as a function of angular frequency and dominance of elastic properties over viscous ones. Xanthan blend was less temperature dependent due to dramatic decrease in activation energy value as compared to control while other gums were more temperature dependent. The magnitude of this effect was reliant on the type and concentration of gum. After storage for 21 days at −20 °C, total syneresis was reduced with the incorporation of xanthan and cress seed and also with high levels of gum arabic, flaxseed and fenugreek gums. The gel hardness was increased after overnight storage at ambient temperature (23 °C) with fenugreek while reduction in hardness was observed with xanthan, flaxseed and okra gums. The presence of gums resulted in significantly higher onset and peak temperatures determined through differential scanning calorimetry.

Study on crystalline, gelatinization and rheological properties of japonica rice flour as affected by starch fine structure

Although many researches have investigated the effects of starch characteristics on its functional properties to evaluate rice quality, few studies were carried out the correlations between starch molecular structure and rice processing properties. In this study, eight varieties of japonica rice with similar content of protein and lipid and less variant content of amylose (12.12-18.19%) were elaborately selected. The result showed that crystalline and pasting parameters were mainly reliant on the differences in chain length distribution of amylopectin. Amylose content and chain length distribution, especially for average exterior chain length (ECL) and interior chain length (ICL) and their entanglement, showed significant correlation on rheological parameters. Swelling power of rice flour showed negative correlation with amylose content. Furthermore, in temperature-reduction process when the temperature is lower gelatinization temperature of amylopectin, the variation of loss modulus was affected by amylopectin. In addition, the PCA plot clearly revealed the interrelationship of all parameters.

Microstructure-modified products from stone-milled wheat bran powder improve glycemic response and sustain colonic fermentation

Accumulating evidence indicates carbohydrates that escape digestion from upper gastrointestinal tract can reduce glycemic response, enter the colon where they are fermented by the gut microbiota and thus exert multiple healthy benefits to host. A vertical stone milling process was used to prepare a natural wheat bran powder (SWB) containing pericarp, spermoderm, nucellar layer, aleurone layer, germ, and 15% starchy endosperm of wheat kernel, with the result that protein, amylose, and dietary fiber significantly raised comparing to wheat flour (WF). Two types of products, a powdered drink (SWB-D) and a puffed particle (SWB-P), were extruded from SWB, which underwent a gradient of gelatinization and recrystallization with progressively increased resistant starch (RS) content. Starch-protein complexes were detected in SWB-D and SWB-P, concurrently accounting for lower in vitro digestibility and human glycemic response than those of WF noodles. Intake of SWB-D and SWB-P by healthy volunteers elevated level and extended duration of breath hydrogen indicative of higher gut microbiota fermentation. Therefore, RS and starch-protein complexes formed during extrusion reduce digestibility of SWB and sustain colonic fermentation with health-promoting potential targeting the gut microbiota.

Starch isolated from different hulless barley cultivars differs in their chemical and structural characteristics

This study aimed to isolate starch and evaluate its chemical and structural characteristics from six Chinese hulless barley (HB) cultivars. Starch isolated from naked barley displays A-type crystalline packing and a regular granular shape. We measured peak viscosity values ranging from 237 to 264 cP, trough viscosity values from 305 to 380 cP, breakdown values from 390 to 535 cP, final viscosities from 357 to 523 cP, setback values from 245 to 354 cP and 383 to 460 cP, peak times from 5.53 to 5.73 min, and pasting temperatures from 93.10 to 94.65°C by RVA. Transition temperatures (T 0, T p, and T c), gelatinization temperature ranges (ΔT r), and enthalpies of gelatinization (ΔH) were measured on a differential scanning calorimeter analyzer (DSC) and ranged from 57.81 to 61.25°C, 64.36 to 67.57°C, 82.03 to 84.70°C, and 21.52 to 26.89°C and 7.14 to 10.66 J/g, respectively. The varying chemical and structural characteristics of HB starch isolated from different cultivars suggested the potential for broader applications of the cereal.

Influences of Extraction Methods on Physicochemical and Functional Characteristics of Three New Bulbil Starches from Dioscorea opposita Thunb. cv. Tiegun

Starches from the bulbils of Dioscoreae opposita Thunb. cv. Tiegun were isolated by aqueous steeping (SBS), enzyme extraction (EBS), and alkaline extraction (ABS) methods, respectively. The physicochemical, mineral composition, thermal and morphological characteristics of these starches were investigated. The starch granules were oval, spherical and kidney-shaped and its crystal type is a mixture of A-type and B-type patterns. The starches having larger average granule size showed more amylose and phosphorus contents than those with smaller average granule size. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showed that the SBS had an endothermic transition ranging from 65.8 °C to 76.3 °C with an enthalpy of 2.0 J/g. The endothermic transitions of ABS and EBS showed the regions of 67.9 °C to 73.0 °C, and 66.8 °C to 82.0 °C, respectively. The gelationization enthalpies of ABS and EBS were 13.8 and 11.5 J/g, respectively. Additionally, ABS presented greater clarity in comparison with EBS and SBS. Pasting properties indicated that ABS had the highest peak viscosity, breakdown, but SBS had the lowest trough, final viscosity, setback, and pasting temperature. Generally, ABS and EBS could be used as food thickener or frozen food additives. SBS and EBS were potential technological alternatives in quality preservation of frozen starch-based products and other industrial applications.

Changes in the Structure and Digestibility of Wrinkled Pea Starch with Malic Acid Treatment

Resistant starch has gradually become a popular food component due to its beneficial physiological effects and heat resistance during processing. In this study, the structure, reaction mechanism, and digestibility of wrinkled pea starch with malic acid and heat⁻moisture treatment (HMT) are investigated. The degree of substitution (DS) of malate starch, HMT-malate starch, and malate-HMT starch was 0.164, 0.280, and 0.146, respectively. Malate starch remained in its complete particle form and pronounced birefringence was displayed. However, the malate-HMT starch sample was almost completely broken into pieces and lost the polarized cross. All modified starch samples had a decreased swelling power and a new peak at 1731⁻1741 cm-1 shown by FTIR. From the 13C CP/MAS NMR (Cross Polarizatio/Magic Angle Spinning Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) spectra, all the modified starches had extra peaks at 38.5 ppm and 172.8 ppm. After esterification treatment, the resistant starch (RS) and slowly digestible starch (SDS) content of starch samples increased dramatically. The higher content of RS and lower enzymatic hydrolysis rate of the malate starch could be used to produce low-calorie foods and have potential health benefits.

Pullulanase treatments to increase resistant starch content of black chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) starch and the effects on starch properties

This study aimed to increase resistant starch (RS) content of black chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) by using pullulanase enzyme. Physicochemical and functional properties of enzyme treated starch (NE) was compared with that of enzyme-treated and gelatinized starch (GE) and the retrograded control starch (RC). RS contents for native black chickpea starch (NS) and black chickpea flour (NF) were measured as 15.2% and 5.0%, respectively. While for NE and GE, were found as 16.4% and 12.3%, respectively. Treatments made on the NS, increased the amount of RDS and reduced the amount of SDS significantly (p < .05). When the effect of enzyme application-autoclaving and retrogradation were compared, 41.3% increase in RS content was measured. In this study; RS3 production from black chickpea starch by a pullulanase enzyme was successfully performed. Enzymatic applications also improved the functional properties such as water absorption capacity, water solubility index value, fat binding capacity and emulsifying capacity. This enzyme treated black chickpea starch samples, being functionally improved, will possibly help to produce different products with desired quality parameters. Therefore, instead of native starch, pullulanase treated black chickpea starch may be used as a functional ingredient for increasing the amount of RS in food formulations.

Impact of molecular structure on the physicochemical properties of starches isolated from different field pea (Pisum sativum L.) cultivars grown in Saskatchewan, Canada

The objective of this study was to determine the molecular structure and properties of recently released cultivars of field peas [CDC Golden (CDCG), Abarth (ABAR), CDC Patrick (CDCP) and CDC Amarillo (CDCA)] grown at different locations in Saskatchewan, Canada. Starch yield (on whole seed basis), apparent amylose, total lipid and specific surface area were in the range 34-37%, 38.2-42.6%, 1.07-1.38% and 0.31-0.38m2/g, respectively. The proportion of short (DP 6-12) amylopectin chains, amylopectin branching density, molecular order, crystallinity, crystalline heterogeneity, gelatinization transition temperatures, pasting temperatures, peak viscosity, extent of acid hydrolysis, and resistant starch content were higher in CDCG and ABAR. However, amylopectin long chains (DP 13-26), average chain length and thermal stability were higher in CDCP and CDCA. The results of this study showed that differences in physicochemical properties among cultivars were mainly influenced by amylopectin chain length distribution, amylopectin branching density and co-crystallization of amylose with amylopectin.