Hexane/ethanol extract of Glycyrrhiza uralensis licorice exerts potent anti-inflammatory effects in murine macrophages and in mouse skin

The correlation between pharmacological activity and contents of eight constituents of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch

Licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. (GUF), Leguminosae) has been extensively applied in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to treat diseases, exactly, in almost half of Chinese herbal prescription. However, the relationship between chemical contents and efficacy has not been established, which could evaluate GUF quality. To create a simple and effective quality-evaluation method, 33 batches of GUF from different habitats in China were collected. The correlation between eight constituents (liquiritin, isoliquiritin, liquiritigenin, isoliquiritigenin, glycyrrhizic acid, licochalcone A, glabridin and glycyrrhetinic acid) and pharmacological activities (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunoregulatory) was analyzed per the partial least squares regression method. Results showed that eight constituents correlated significantly with the pharmacological activity. The correlation equation modes between pharmacological activity and contents of eight constituents were constructed and verified to be reliable. In GUF extract, the main constituents liquiritin, isoliquiritin and glycyrrhizic acid exhibited positive influence on anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effect with different potent, while the metabolites liquiritigenin and isoliquiritigenin exhibited positive effect on the immunoregulatory activity and glycyrrhetinic acid exhibited positive effect on all the tested activities. Thus, our chemical-efficacy correlation method is reliable and feasible to predict the pharmacological activity based on its eight constituents. It could be powerful in quality control of GUF and provides a useful way for quality evaluation of other medicinal herbs.

Effect of dietary licorice flavonoids powder on performance, intestinal immunity and health of weaned piglets

Licorice flavonoids, a bioactive substance derived from glycyrrhiza, have been reported for many pharmacological properties and are beneficial to animal health. This study aimed to explore the effects of licorice flavonoids powder (LFP) on growth performance and intestinal health of piglets. A total of 96 weaned piglets were randomly assigned into four treatments and supplemented with 0, 50, 150 and 250 mg/kg LFP for 5 weeks. Dietary LFP supplementation tended to increase (p = 0.068) average daily gain (ADG) and reduce (p = 0.089) the feed intake/body gain (F/G) of piglets than that of the control group during 15-35 days; and concentrations of LFP supplementation reduced (p < 0.01) diarrhoea index during 14-35 days and 0-35 days. Piglets fed on diets supplied with LFP had a lower (p < 0.05) pH in caecum and colon. Dietary LFP supplementation increased (p < 0.01) the villi height and the ratio of villi height/crypt depth in duodenum, and reduced (p < 0.05) crypt depth in duodenum. Compared with the control group, 250 mg/kg LFP supplementation up-regulated (p < 0.05) the mRNA level of occludin (OCLN) in ileum. Meanwhile, dietary LFP supplementation down-regulated (p < 0.05) mRNA abundance of Interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-8 and induced nitrogen monoxide synthase (INOS) in duodenum. Dietary 150 mg/kg LFP supplementation down-regulated (p < 0.05) mRNA abundance of IL-1β and 250 mg/kg LFP up-regulated (p < 0.05) the expression of IL-10 in ileum. In summary, dietary LFP supplementation has a trend to improve the performance of weaning piglets, those improvements are accompanied by reduction in diarrhoea, enhancement of intestinal morphological structure, barrier function, immune function, and development. In general, 150 mg/kg LFP supplementation is more effective.

Study on the mechanism of anti-hepatic fibrosis of Glycyrrhiza Uralensis-Salvia miltiorrhiza prescription based on serum and urine metabolomics and network pharmacology

Hepatic fibrosis (HF) is a kind of chronic epidemic liver disease. Glycyrrhiza Uralensis and Salvia Miltiorrhiza (GUSM), traditional Chinese medicine, has the obvious clinical treatment of liver fibrosis. This study aimed to investigate the mechanisms of GUSM against HF by an integrated strategy combining untargeted metabolomics with network pharmacology. The results showed that GUSM prescription can improve the morphology and structure of liver tissue, inhibit the proliferation of collagen fibers and reducing the inflammatory response of the liver and so on. Endogenous metabolites and HF-related potential biomarkers in serum and urine were detected by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS). The metabolic pathways were enriched by MetaboAnalyst. GUSM prescription showed an antifibrotic effect on rats by regulating metabolic pathways, mainly pentose and glucuronate interconversions and arachidonic acid metabolism. Network pharmacology was then applied to find 42 overlapping targets of GUSM-HF. Quercetin was found to be the main active component and STAT3 was the main active target in GUSM prescription. Molecular docking showed high affinities between quercetin and STAT3. Therefore, GUSM has protective effects on HF by regulating the metabolism and different signaling pathways. The work also shows that the metabolomic and network pharmacology methods are promising tools to gain insight into the efficacy and mechanism research of traditional Chinese medicines.

Dietary licorice flavonoids powder improves serum antioxidant capacity and immune organ inflammatory responses in weaned piglets

Weaning often induces oxidative stress and inflammatory response in piglets. This study investigated the effects of dietary licorice flavonoids powder (LFP) supplementation on antioxidant capacity and immunity in weaned piglets. Notably, 96 Landrace × Yorkshire × Duroc (DLY) weaned piglets were randomly allocated to four treatments with 6 replicates (4 animals per replicate) and fed with diet supplementation with 0, 50, 150, and 250 mg/kg LFP, respectively. The trial lasted for 5 weeks. The results showed that dietary LFP supplementation effectively increased the liver index (P < 0.05). In addition, dietary LFP supplementation reduced serum aspartate aminotransferase activity (P < 0.01). Piglets fed with 50 mg/kg LFP decreased total cholesterol and HDL-C content in serum (P < 0.05) and increased serum alkaline phosphatase activity (P < 0.01). Similarly, supplementation with 150 mg/kg LFP elevated the activity of total antioxidant capability (T-AOC) in serum (P < 0.01) and dietary with 150 and 250 mg/kg LFP increased T-AOC activity in spleen (P < 0.01). Moreover, dietary with 150 mg/kg LFP addition enhanced (P < 0.05) the serum IgG content of piglets. Additionally, compared with the control group, dietary 250 mg/kg LFP supplementation upregulated (P < 0.05) the mRNA abundance of Interleukin (IL)-1β and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) in the spleen. Meanwhile, dietary 150 and 250 mg/kg LFP supplementation downregulated (P < 0.05) mRNA abundance of IL-10, and MCP-1 and 250 mg/kg LFP upregulated (P < 0.05) the expression of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), IL-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) in the thymus. In conclusion, LFP supplementation improved the immune function of piglets by regulating the activity of serum biochemical enzymes, improving the antioxidant capacity, and alleviating inflammation of immune organs. This study indicated that LFP is potential alternative protection against early weaned stress in piglets.

The genus Glycyrrhiza (Fabaceae family) and its active constituents as protective agents against natural or chemical toxicities

Licorice is the dried roots and rhizomes of various species of the genus Glycyrrhiza (Fabaceae) that have been used in folk medicine from ancient times. Many important research projects have established several beneficial effects for this medicinal herb, including antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antiprotozoal, antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective. Licorice contains important bioactive components, such as glycyrrhizin (glycyrrhizic, glycyrrhizinic acid), liquiritigenin, liquiritin, and glycyrrhetinic acid. The protective effects of licorice and its main chemical components against toxins and toxicants in several organs including the brain, heart, liver, kidney, and lung have been shown. In this comprehensive review article, the protective effects of these constituents against natural, industrial, environmental, and chemical toxicities with attention on the cellular and molecular mechanism are introduced. Also, it has been revealed that this plant and its main compounds can inhibit the toxicity of different toxins by the antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties as well as the modulation of Inhibitor of kappaB kinase (IKK), Extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase1/2 (ERK1/2), p38, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathways. More high-quality investigations in both experimental and clinical studies need to firmly establish the efficacy of licorice and its main constituents against toxic agents.

Preclinical Evidence for the Pharmacological Actions of Glycyrrhizic Acid: A Comprehensive Review

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Family: Fabaceae) is one of the important traditional medicinal plant used extensively in folk medicine. It is known for its ethnopharmacological value in curing a wide variety of ailments. Glycyrrhizin, an active compound of G. glabra, possesses anti-inflammatory activity due to which it is mostly used in traditional herbal medicine for the treatment and management of chronic diseases. The present review is focused extensively on the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicology, and potential effects of Glycyrrhizic Acid (GA). A thorough literature survey was conducted to identify various studies that reported on the GA on PubMed, Science Direct and Google Scholar.

Glycoside Compounds From Glycyrrhiza uralensis and Their Neuroprotective Activities

This paper concerns the study of the roots and rhizomes of Glycyrrhiza uralensis where one new alkaloid glycoside, 3,4-dihydroxyquinoline 4- O-β-d-glucopyranoside, along with 13 known compounds (12 phenolic glycosides and one triterpene glycoside) were isolated and identified. The structure of the new compound and the known ones were identified on the basis of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectrometric (MS) analysis. All the glycosides were tested for their anti-neuroinflammatory activities by inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) release in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced murine microglial BV-2 cells. Several compounds were tested for their antioxidant activities in rat adrenal pheochromocytoma PC12 cells. A structure–activity relationship (SAR) analysis was carried out and revealed that the position and amount of sugar moieties have significant impact on antioxidant activities.

Rapid magnetic particles-based enzyme immunoassay for the quality control of Glycyrrhiza spp. based on glycyrrhizin content

Glycyrrhizin (GC) is a triterpenoid saponin isolated from the roots of Glycyrrhiza spp., a medicinal plant that is present in 70% of Kampo prescriptions. Since the GC content in Glycyrrhiza spp. affects its various pharmacological activities, Glycyrrhiza spp. is prescribed to contain at least 2% of GC in the Japanese pharmacopoeia, and its quality control based on GC content is required. In this study, a magnetic particles-based enzyme immunoassay (MPs-EIA) was developed using specific monoclonal antibody against GC (MAb 2H2) for the detection of GC in Glycyrrhiza spp. In this system, the immunoreaction time using primary and secondary antibodies was reduced by taking advantage of the wide surface area of magnetic particles (MPs) conjugated with GC by N,N'‑carbonyldiimidazole (CDI)-mediated method. Optimization of MPs-EIA revealed that total assay time (~2 h) was reduced to over half of that of conventional indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (~5 h). In addition, the GC concentration was detectable within the range from 97.7 to 781 ng/mL, with a limit of detection of 71.4 ng/mL. A series of further validation analyses support the reliability and accuracy of the developed MPs-EIA for the detection of GC in Glycyrrhiza spp. Since the present MPs-EIA overcomes the disadvantage of ELISA in terms of rapidity, it provides a useful approach for the effective quality control of Glycyrrhiza spp., especially when handling multiple samples.

In vitro anti-proliferative and anti-bacterial properties of new C7 benzoate derivatives of pinocembrin

In the present work, the in vitro anti-proliferative and anti-bacterial activities of three semi-synthetic benzoate pinocembrin derivatives, isolated from the aerial parts of Glycyrrhiza glabra L., were investigated. As occurs in most natural compounds, the bioavailability of pinocembrin is very poor, therefore it should be improved by chemical strategies aimed to prolong its shelf life and, consequently, its activity. On this basis, three benzoate derivatives of pinocembrin (a1-a3) were synthesised and assayed in order to ascertain their biological value. Among them, compound a1 showed the highest anti-proliferative activity on a wide panel of cancer cell lines, as well as low toxic effects on non-malignant breast cells. The calculated IC₅₀ values in HeLa and SKBR3 cells were 8.5 and 12.7 µM, respectively. Briefly, a1 treatment increased ROS levels, induced mitochondrial membrane damage leading to necrotic death of HeLa cells. Moreover, a1 displayed a promising anti-bacterial activity.

Phenolic compounds from cultivated Glycyrrhiza uralensis and their PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitory activities

One new compound (1) and fifteen known phenolic compounds (2-16) were isolated and identified from the roots and rhizomes of Glycyrrhiza uralensis, including ten flavonoids, four coumarins, and two benzofurans compounds. Their structures were identified by NMR and MS analysis. Most of these compounds showed weak PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitory activities with the inhibition ratios from 30 to 65% at 100 uM. To our knowledge, it is the first time that their PD-1/PD-L1 inhibition activities were reported.

Potential detoxification effect of active ingredients in liquorice by upregulating efflux transporter

BACKGROUND

As one of most widely used herbal medicine, liquorice exhibits diverse pharmacological activities, for instance, analgesic, antitussive, antiarrhythmic, anti-inflammatory, and immune regulation. Additionally, detoxification effects were observed in combination of liquorice with other herbal drugs. The mechanism of detoxification of liquorice has been extensively investigated through material basis and interference with CYPs though, investigations of its effect on transporters were very limited, according to the literature.

PURPOSE

The objective of this study was attempt to investigate the effect of active ingredients existing in liquorice on the efflux transporters as to clarify the potential mechanism of detoxification of liquorice.

METHODS

Multiple analytical approaches have been explored, including flow cytometry, fluorescent detection, RT-PCR, Western blot to measure the function, activity as well as mRNA/protein expression of efflux transporters on LS-180 cell model after treatments with active compounds of liquorice. Additionally, Caco-2 cell model was utilized to further investigate the potential impact of those ingredients on efflux transporter.

RESULTS

The resulting data indicated that those active ingredients, including flavonoids (liquiritin, liquiritigenin, isoliquiritin, isoliquiritigenin and licochalcone A) and pentacyclic triterpene saponin (glycyrrhetinic acid) were able to upregulate the expression of efflux transporters, for example P-gp, BCRP and MRP2. The gene expressions were approximately over 2.5 folds by comparison with that of control, and up to 13 folds and 16 folds for BCRP by isoliquiritin and isoliquiritigenin, and further confirmed by Western blot. The functional assay also supported up-regulation of efflux transporter by those ingredients. Flow cytometry study showed that the level of rhodamine123 as probe substrate in LS-180 cells decreased to approximately 50% after treatment with active ingredients of liquorice, compared with that of control. The fluorescent assay confirmed that change of rhodamine 123 was correlated with the concentrations of active ingredients given. The efflux transport of rhodamine 123 was enhanced in Caco-2 cell models as well.

CONCLUSION

The study clarified potential detoxification mechanism of liquorice by up-regulating efflux transporter as to reduce absorption of xenobiotics across small intestinal membrane, which provided a new insight into pharmacological function of liquorice.

Prenylated Flavonoids from Roots of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Induce Differentiation of B16-F10 Melanoma Cells

Roots of Glycyrrhiza uralensis have been used as herbal medicine and natural sweetener. By activity-guided phytochemical investigation of the extracts from G. uralensis root, ten flavonoids, namely GF-1–GF-10, of which five were prenylated flavonoids, were found to show antiproliferative effects in melanoma B16-F10 cells. Three of the prenylated flavonoids, namely GF-1, GF-4 and GF-9, significantly induced the differentiation of B16-F10 cells; the inductions included increase of tyrosinase activity, tyrosinase protein, and melanin content. In GF-1 and GF-9 induced melanoma differentiation, the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK (mitogen activated potein kinase) was identified; while GF-4 could trigger the phosphorylation of PI3K/AKT (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Protein Kinase B) signaling. However, application of GF-6 to the melanoma cells did not induce differentiation; but which promoted cell apoptotic signaling, i.e., increase levels of cleaved-PRAP, cleaved-caspase 3, and cleaved-caspase 9. These results suggested that different types of prenylated flavonoids from G. uralensis might have potential anticancer effects against melanoma cells by acting through different signaling pathways.

Effectiveness and safety of Glycyrrhizae Decoction for Purging Stomach-Fire in Behcet disease patients: Study protocol for a randomized controlled and double-blinding trail

BACKGROUND

Behcet disease (BD) is a worldwide-occurred autoimmune disorder and currently lack of optional successful treatment. An ancient traditional Chinese medical formula called Glycyrrhizae Decoction for Purging Stomach-Fire (GDPSF) was recorded and nowadays has been observed to be effective for BD patients. However, the strict randomized controlled and double-blinding trail is needed to further assess this alternative medicine.

METHODS

To ascertain the potential effects and safety of GDPSF for BD patients and to determine whether combination application of GDPSF and thalidomide could possibly reduce the side effects and increase effectiveness for BD management, we will conduct a randomized, double blind, controlled clinical trial. Patients enrolled will be randomly assigned into 3 groups: GDPSF group, thalidomide group, and integrative group (treated by both GDPSF and thalidomide). Participants will receive treatment for 6 months and accept a 12 months follow-up. Before and after treatment, clinical manifestations, blood tests, thalidomide dosage, remission levels, quality of life, and satisfactory levels will be assessed. The data of assessments on each group before and after treatments will be collected and analyzed through historical control, while between groups through intergroup control. Then statistical analysis will be applied to assess the effects and safety.

DISCUSSION

This study protocol will assess the effects and safety of GDPSF for BD patients GDPSF. Combination application of GDPSF and thalidomide might be a new integrative medical method for BD patients.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Chinese Clinical Registry (ChiCTR-ONC-16009621) on Oct. 2016 http://www.chictr.org.cn/showproj.aspx?proj=16395.

The anti-inflammatory activity of licorice, a widely used Chinese herb

CONTEXT

Increasing incidence and impact of inflammatory diseases have encouraged the search of new pharmacological strategies to face them. Licorice has been used to treat inflammatory diseases since ancient times in China.

OBJECTIVE

To summarize the current knowledge on anti-inflammatory properties and mechanisms of compounds isolated from licorice, to introduce the traditional use, modern clinical trials and officially approved drugs, to evaluate the safety and to obtain new insights for further research of licorice.

METHODS

PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct and ResearchGate were information sources for the search terms 'licorice', 'licorice metabolites', 'anti-inflammatory', 'triterpenoids', 'flavonoids' and their combinations, mainly from year 2010 to 2016 without language restriction. Studies were selected from Science Citation Index journals, in vitro studies with Jadad score less than 2 points and in vivo and clinical studies with experimental flaws were excluded.

RESULTS

Two hundred and ninety-five papers were searched and 93 papers were reviewed. Licorice extract, 3 triterpenes and 13 flavonoids exhibit evident anti-inflammatory properties mainly by decreasing TNF, MMPs, PGE2 and free radicals, which also explained its traditional applications in stimulating digestive system functions, eliminating phlegm, relieving coughing, nourishing qi and alleviating pain in TCM. Five hundred and fifty-four drugs containing licorice have been approved by CFDA. The side effect may due to the cortical hormone like action.

CONCLUSION

Licorice and its natural compounds have demonstrated anti-inflammatory activities. More pharmacokinetic studies using different models with different dosages should be carried out, and the maximum tolerated dose is also critical for clinical use of licorice extract and purified compounds.

18α-Glycyrrhetinic acid monoglucuronide as an anti-inflammatory agent through suppression of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathway

Based on the SAR analysis of glycyrrhizin, 18α-glycyrrhetinic acid monoglucuronide (18α-GAMG) with strong inhibition against LPS-induced NO and IL-6 production in RAW264.7 cells was discovered. Western blotting and immunofluorescence results showed that 18α-GAMG reduced the expression of iNOS, COX-2, and MAPKs, as well as activation of NF-κB in the LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Further in vivo results showed that 18α-GAMG could significantly improve the pathological changes of CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis.

Glycyrrhiza uralensis water extract enhances dendritic cell maturation and antitumor efficacy of HPV dendritic cell-based vaccine

Licorice has been used as herbal medicine and natural sweetener. Here, we prepared Glycyrrhiza uralensis water extract (GUWE) and investigated the effect of GUWE on the maturation and function of dendritic cells (DCs) and its adjuvant effect on DC-based vaccine. We observed that GUWE dose-dependently promoted DC maturation and cytokine secretion through TLR4 signaling pathway. The capacity of DC to stimulate allogenic splenocyte proliferation was also enhanced by GUWE treatment. Compared with control group, GUWE treated DCs pulsed with human papillomavirus (HPV)-16 E6/E7 peptides significantly inhibited the tumor growth in both early and late therapeutic groups. In early therapeutic group, the frequencies of induced regulatory T cells (iTregs: CD4⁺CD25⁻Fopx3⁺) and CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells were significantly decreased and increased, respectively. HPV-16-specific CD8⁺ T cell responses were significantly induced and negatively correlated with iTreg frequencies and tumor weight. These results indicated the immunoregulatory activities of licorice.

Bioactive Constituents of Glycyrrhiza uralensis (Licorice): Discovery of the Effective Components of a Traditional Herbal Medicine

Traditional herbal medicines have been reported to possess significant bioactivities. In this investigation, a combined strategy using both phytochemical and biological approaches was conducted to discern the effective components of licorice, a widely used herbal medicine. Altogether, 122 compounds (1-122), including six new structures (1-6), were isolated and identified from the roots and rhizomes of Glycyrrhiza uralensis (licorice). These compounds were then screened using 11 cell- and enzyme-based bioassay methods, including Nrf2 activation, NO inhibition, NF-κB inhibition, H1N1 virus inhibition, cytotoxicity for cancer cells (HepG2, SW480, A549, MCF7), PTP1B inhibition, tyrosinase inhibition, and AChE inhibition. A number of bioactive compounds, particularly isoprenylated phenolics, were found for the first time. Echinatin (7), a potent Nrf2 activator, was selected as an example for further biological work. It attenuated CCl4-induced liver damage in mice (5 or 10 mg/kg, ip) and thus is responsible, at least in part, for the hepatoprotective activity of licorice.

Delivery of liquorice extract by liposomes and hyalurosomes to protect the skin against oxidative stress injuries

Liquorice extract, obtained by percolation in ethanol of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. roots, was incorporated in liposomes and hyalurosomes, new phospholipid-sodium hyaluronate vesicles, and their protective effect against oxidative stress skin damages was probed. As a comparison, raw glycyrrhizin was also tested. All the vesicles were small in size (≤ 100 nm), with a highly negative zeta potential ensuring long-term stability, and able to incorporate a high amount of the extract. In vitro tests showed that the liquorice extract loaded in vesicles was able to scavenge DPPH free radical (80% inhibition) and to protect 3T3 fibroblasts against H2O2-induced oxidative stress, restoring the normal conditions. By contrast, glycyrrhizin showed poor antioxidant activity, and was not able to efficiently counteract the oxidative effect of H2O2. In addition, the incorporation of the liquorice extract into the vesicular systems promoted the proliferation and migration of 3T3 fibroblasts, favouring the closure of the scratched area. In vivo anti-inflammatory tests on mice confirmed the ability of the proposed nanosystems to improve the local efficacy of the extract, favouring the re-epitelization process.

Prenylated polyphenolic compounds from Glycyrrhiza iconica and their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities

A new prenylated isoflavan, iconisoflavan (1), and a new prenylated isoflav-3-ene, iconisoflaven (2) were isolated from the roots of Glycyrrhiza iconica together with four known ones namely (3S)-licoricidin (3), licorisoflavan A (4), topazolin (5) and glycycoumarin (6). The structures were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis including 1D and 2D NMR as well as HR-MS. Furthermore, the absolute configurations of compounds 1, 3 and 4 were established by electronic circular dichroism (ECD). All the isolated compounds (1-6) were evaluated for their in vitro antimicrobial activities against five pathogenic bacteria and one yeast (Candida albicans) using an in vitro microdilution method. Compounds 1 and 3-5 displayed significant activity against Salmonella typhimurium ATCC 13311 with MIC values ranging from 2 to 8 μg/mL. Additionally, all compounds were screened for their in vitro free radical scavenging activities using an in vitro microdilution DPPH assay spectrofotometrically. The tested compounds exhibited IC50 values in the range of 0.18-0.56 mg/mL, suggesting an activity comparable with that of ascorbic acid (IC50: 0.07 mg/mL). To the best of our knowledge, the present study constitutes the first phytochemical and bioactivity investigation on G. iconica.

The potential of e-nose aroma profiling for identifying the geographical origin of licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) roots

Licorice roots cultivated commercially in distinct geographical areas such as China, Iran, Italy (Abruzzo, Basilicata, Calabria and Sicily) and Turkey were classified using an artificial olfactive system (e-nose) based on metal oxide semiconductor sensors (MOS). The resultant instrumental data were processed using a multivariate statistical analysis method in order to classify the raw samples according to its origin. The e-nose odourprintings were obtained by a canonical discriminant analysis carried out with the aim of relating the specific data-sets corresponding to whole licorice roots aroma with the e-nose reference dataset. E-nose results were compared to those obtained by SPME/GC-MS. The HS-SPME/GC/MS analysis was used as a control system to check for the actual existence of differences in the chemical composition of sample headspace. These results imply the possibility to use an electronic nose as a tool for a quick, effective and non-destructive authentication of licorice roots.

18β-glycyrrhetinic acid attenuates anandamide-induced adiposity and high-fat diet induced obesity

SCOPE

Previous reports suggest that licorice extract has various metabolically beneficial effects and may help to alleviate adiposity and hyperlipidemia. However, underlying anti-obesity mechanisms still remain elusive. Moreover, it is unknown which single ingredient in licorice extract would mediate such effects. We aimed to demonstrate that licorice extract and its active ingredients can inhibit adipocyte differentiation and fat accumulation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

18β-glycyrrhetinic acid (18β-GA) alleviated the effects of CB1R agonist, anandamide (AEA) on CB1R signaling in a concentration-dependent manner. Consistently, 18β-GA suppressed AEA-induced adipocyte differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells through the downregulation of AEA-induced MAPK activation and expression of adipogenic genes including C/EBP-α and PPAR-γ. The protein levels of fatty acid synthase and stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 were also decreased and the phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase was increased in 18β-GA pretreated cells. The supplementation of 18β-GA significantly lowered body weight, fat weight, and plasma lipids levels in obese animal models.

CONCLUSION

These results may provide a novel insight into the molecular mechanism involved in anti-adipogenic and anti-obesity effects of 18β-GA by suppressing the activation of CB1R induced by AEA. Thus, 18β-GA may exert beneficial effects against obesity-related metabolic disorders.

Erucin exerts anti-inflammatory properties in murine macrophages and mouse skin: possible mediation through the inhibition of NFκB signaling

Erucin, an isothiocyanate, is a hydrolysis product of glucoerucin found in arugula and has recently been reported to have anti-cancer properties in various cancer cells. In this study, we assessed the anti-inflammatory effects of erucin and the underlying mechanisms, using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 murine macrophages and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-treated mouse skin. In RAW 264.7 cells, erucin (2.5, 5 μmol/L) inhibited LPS-induced production of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E₂. Erucin inhibited LPS-induced degradation of the inhibitor of κBα and translocation of p65 to the nucleus and, subsequently, reduced LPS-induced nuclear factor κB (NFκB) DNA binding activities, as well as the transcriptional activity of NFκB, leading to the decreased expression of NFκB-target genes, including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, as well as transcriptional activity of iNOS and COX-2. In mice, erucin (100, 300 nmoles) treatment significantly inhibited phorbol ester-induced formation of ear edema and expression of iNOS and COX-2 proteins. These results indicate that erucin exerts a potent anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the pro-inflammatory enzymes and cytokines, which may be mediated, at least in part, via the inhibition of NFκB signaling.

Non-destructive flavour evaluation of red onion (Allium cepa L.) ecotypes: an electronic-nose-based approach

This work reports preliminary results on the potential of a metal oxide sensor (MOS)-based electronic nose, as a non-destructive method to discriminate three "Tropea Red Onion" PGI ecotypes (TrT, TrMC and TrA) from each other and the common red onion (RO), which is usually used to counterfeit. The signals from the sensor array were processed using a canonical discriminant function analysis (DFA) pattern recognition technique. The DFA on onion samples showed a clear separation among the four onion groups with an overall correct classification rate (CR) of 97.5%. Onion flavour is closely linked to pungency and thus to the pyruvic acid content. The e-nose analysis results are in good agreement with pyruvic acid analysis. This work demonstrated that artificial olfactory systems have potential for use as an innovative, rapid and specific non-destructive technique, and may provide a method to protect food products against counterfeiting.

Naturally derived anti-inflammatory compounds from Chinese medicinal plants

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Though inflammatory response is beneficial to body damage repair, if it is out of control, it can produce adverse effects on the body. Although purely western anti-inflammatory drugs, orthodox medicines, can control inflammation occurrence and development, it is not enough. The clinical efficacy of anti-inflammation therapies is unsatisfactory, thus the search for new anti-inflammation continues. Chinese Material Medica (CMM) remains a promising source of new therapeutic agents. CMM and herbal formulae from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), unorthodox medicines, play an improtant anti-inflammatory role in multi-targets, multi-levels, and multi-ways in treating inflammation diseases in a long history in China, based on their multi-active ingredient characteristics. Due to these reasons, recently, CMM has been commercialized as an anti-inflammation agent which has become increasingly popular in the world health drug markets. Major research contributions in ethnopharmacology have generated vast amount of data associated with CMM in anti-inflammtion aspect. Therefore, a systematic introduction of CMM anti-inflammatory research progress is of great importance and necessity.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This paper strives to describe the progress of CMM in the treatment of inflammatory diseases from different aspects, and provide the essential theoretical support and scientific evidence for the further development and utilization of CMM resources as a potential anti-inflammation drug through a variety of databases.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Literature survey was performed via electronic search (SciFinder®, Pubmed®, Google Scholar and Web of Science) on papers and patents and by systematic research in ethnopharmacological literature at various university libraries.

RESULTS

This review mainly introduced the current research on the anti-inflammatory active ingredient, anti-inflammatory effects of CMM, their mechanism, anti-inflammatory drug development of CMM, and toxicological information.

CONCLUSION

CMM is used clinically to treat inflammation symptoms in TCM, and its effect is mediated by multiple targets through multiple active ingredients. Although scholars around the world have made studies on the anti-inflammatory studies of CMM from different pathways and aspects and have made substantial progress, further studies are warranted to delineate the inflammation actions in more cogency models, establish the toxicological profiles and quality standards, assess the potentials of CMM in clinical applications, and make more convenient preparations easy to administrate for patients. Development of the clinically anti-inflammatory drugs are also warranted.

Liquorice reduced cyclosporine bioavailability by activating P-glycoprotein and CYP 3A

Liquorice (root of Glycyrrhiza uralensis FISCH) is an ingredient of candies and used as a popular medicine in Europe and oriental countries. Cyclosporine (CsA), an immunosuppressant with narrow therapeutic window, is widely used in transplant patients. The absorption and disposition of CsA were associated with P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4). This study investigated the effects of liquorice extract (LE) and its major ingredient, glycyrrhizin (GZ), on CsA pharmacokinetics in rats. The results indicated that LE and GZ significantly decreased the peak blood concentration and the areas under the curves of CsA in rats. Mechanism studies revealed that glycyrrhetic acid (GA), the major metabolite of GZ, significantly activated the functions of P-gp and CYP3A4. In conclusion, liquorice significantly reduced the oral bioavailability of CsA through activating P-gp and CYP3A4.

Glycyrrhizic acid and 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid modulate lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response by suppression of NF-κB through PI3K p110δ and p110γ inhibitions

The roots and rhizomes of licorice ( Glycyrrhia ) species have been used extensively as natural sweeteners and herbal medicines. The aim of this work was to determine the in vitro anti-inflammatory effects of glycyrrhizic acid (GA) and 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid (18βGA) from licorice in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophage model. The results showed that treatment with 25-75 μM GA or 18βGA did not reduce RAW 264.7 cell viability but did significantly inhibit the production of LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)), and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Western blotting and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analyses revealed that GA and 18βGA significantly reduced the protein and mRNA levels of iNOS and COX-2 in LPS-induced macrophages. Both GA and 18βGA inhibited the activation of NF-κB and the activities of phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) p110δ and p110γ isoforms and then reduced the production of LPS-induced tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β in a dose-dependent manner. In conclusion, these results indicate that GA and 18βGA may provide an anti-inflammatory effect by attenuating the generation of excessive NO, PGE(2), and ROS and by suppressing the expression of pro-inflammatory genes through the inhibition of NF-κB and PI3K activity. Thus, the results suggest that GA and 18βGA might serve as potential agents for the treatment of inflammatory-mediated diseases.

Hexane–ethanol extract ofGlycyrrhiza uralensiscontaining licoricidin inhibits the metastatic capacity of DU145 human prostate cancer cells

Licorice extracts are known to exhibit anti-carcinogenic activities. However, chronic licorice consumption can lead to serious side effects due to the presence of considerable quantities of glycyrrhizin, which causes severe hypokalaemia and hypertension. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of a hexane–ethanol extract ofGlycyrrhiza uralensis(HEGU), which lacks glycyrrhizin, on the metastatic characteristics of DU145 prostate cancer cells. HEGU inhibited basal and epidermal growth factor-induced cell migration, invasion and adhesion in a dose-dependent fashion. HEGU significantly suppressed the secretion and activation of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9. The secretion of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 was reduced, but that of TIMP-2 was increased in HEGU-treated cells. HEGU reduced the protein levels of integrin-α2, the intercellular adhesion molecule, and the vascular cell adhesion molecule. An active fraction of HEGU was separated via column chromatography, and the structure of the active component, licoricidin, was identified via1H NMR and13C NMR. The treatment of DU145 cells with licoricidin induced a reduction in cell migration and the secretion of MMP-9, TIMP-1, urokinase-type plasminogen activator and vascular endothelial growth factor, as well as in the expression of adhesion molecules. These results indicate that HEGU, which contains licoricidin, is a potent anti-metastatic agent, which can markedly inhibit the metastatic and invasive capacity of malignant prostate cancer cells. The observed reductions in the activation of proteases and the levels of adhesion molecules may constitute a component of the mechanisms by which HEGU inhibits the migration and adhesion of prostate cancer cells.