Peptidomics as a tool for characterizing bioactive milk peptides

Preparation, bioactivities, and food industry applications of tuber and tuberous roots peptides: A review

Tuber and tuberous roots proteins are important sources for producing bioactive peptides. The objective of this review is to present the current research status of tubers and tuberous roots bioactive peptides (TTRBP), including its preparation methods, purification techniques, structure identification approaches, biological functions, and applications in the food industry. Moreover, the current challenges and future development trends of TTRBP are elucidated. Currently, TTRBP are mainly produced by enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation. Pretreatment like high static pressure, ultrasound and microwave can assist enzymatic hydrolysis and facilitate TTRBP production. In addition, TTRBP are structurally diverse, which is related to the molecular weight, amino acids composition, and linkage mode. Accordingly, they have various biological activities (such as antioxidant, antihypertensive, hypoglycemic) and have been utilized in the food industry as functional ingredients and food additives. This review will provide valuable insights for the optimal utilization of tuber and tuberous roots.

Peptides with biological and technofunctional properties produced by bromelain hydrolysis of proteins from different sources: A review

Bromelains are cysteine peptidases with endopeptidase action (a subfamily of papains), obtained from different parts of vegetable belonging to the Bromeliaceae family. They have some intrinsic medical activity, but this review is focused on their application (individually or mixed with other proteases) to produce bioactive peptides. When compared to other proteases, perhaps due to the fact that they are commercialized as an extract containing several proteases, the hydrolysates produced by this enzyme tends to have higher bioactivities than other common proteases. The peptides and the intensity of their final properties depend on the substrate protein and reaction conditions, being the degree of hydrolysis a determining parameter (but not always positive or negative). The produced peptides may have diverse activities such as antioxidant, antitumoral, antihypertensive or antimicrobial ones, among others or they may be utilized to improve the organoleptic properties of foods and feeds. Evolution of the use of this enzyme in this application is proposed to be based on a more intense direct application of Bromeliaceae extract, without the cost associated to enzyme purification, and the use of immobilized biocatalysts of the enzyme by simplifying the enzyme recovery and reuse, and also making the sequential hydrolysis using diverse proteases possible.

Cell-Penetrating Milk-Derived Peptides with a Non-Inflammatory Profile

Milk-derived peptides are known to confer anti-inflammatory effects. We hypothesised that milk-derived cell-penetrating peptides might modulate inflammation in useful ways. Using computational techniques, we identified and synthesised peptides from the milk protein Alpha-S1-casein that were predicted to be cell-penetrating using a machine learning predictor. We modified the interpretation of the prediction results to consider the effects of histidine. Peptides were then selected for testing to determine their cell penetrability and anti-inflammatory effects using HeLa cells and J774.2 mouse macrophage cell lines. The selected peptides all showed cell penetrating behaviour, as judged using confocal microscopy of fluorescently labelled peptides. None of the peptides had an effect on either the NF-κB transcription factor or TNFα and IL-1β secretion. Thus, the identified milk-derived sequences have the ability to be internalised into the cell without affecting cell homeostatic mechanisms such as NF-κB activation. These peptides are worthy of further investigation for other potential bioactivities or as a naturally derived carrier to promote the cellular internalisation of other active peptides.

Effect of Fermentation with Streptococcus thermophilus Strains on In Vitro Gastro-Intestinal Digestion of Whey Protein Concentrates

Three Streptococcus thermophilus strains, namely RBC6, RBC20, and RBN16, were proven to release bioactive peptides during whey protein concentrate (WPC) fermentation, resulting in WPC hydrolysates with biological activities. However, these bioactive peptides can break down during gastro-intestinal digestion (GID), hindering the health-promoting effect of fermented WPC hydrolysates in vivo. In this work, the effect of simulated GID on three WPC hydrolysates fermented with S. thermophilus strains, as well as on unfermented WPC was studied in terms of protein hydrolysis, biological activities, and peptidomics profiles, respectively. In general, WPC fermentation enhanced protein hydrolysis compared to unfermented WPC. After in vitro GID, WPC fermented with S. thermophilus RBC20 showed the highest antioxidant activity, whereas WPC fermented with strain RBC06 displayed the highest angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)- and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV)-inhibitory activities. Peptidomics analysis revealed that all digested WPC samples were highly similar to each other in peptide profiles, and 85% of the 46 identified bioactive peptides were shared among fermented and unfermented samples. However, semi-quantitative analysis linked the observed differences in biological activities among the samples to differences in the amount of bioactive peptides. The anti-hypertensive peptides VPP and IPP, as well as the DPP-IV-inhibitory peptide APFPE, were quantified. In conclusion, WPC fermentation with S. thermophilus positively impacted protein hydrolysis and bioactive peptide release during GID.

Food Peptides for the Nutricosmetic Industry

In recent years, numerous reports have described bioactive peptides (biopeptides)/hydrolysates produced from various food sources. Biopeptides are considered interesting for industrial application since they show numerous functional properties (e.g., anti-aging, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties) and technological properties (e.g., solubility, emulsifying, and foaming). Moreover, they have fewer side effects than synthetic drugs. Nevertheless, some challenges must be overcome before their administration via the oral route. The gastric, pancreatic, and small intestinal enzymes and acidic stomach conditions can affect their bioavailability and the levels that can reach the site of action. Some delivery systems have been studied to avoid these problems (e.g., microemulsions, liposomes, solid lipid particles). This paper summarizes the results of studies conducted on biopeptides isolated from plants, marine organisms, animals, and biowaste by-products, discusses their potential application in the nutricosmetic industry, and considers potential delivery systems that could maintain their bioactivity. Our results show that food peptides are environmentally sustainable products that can be used as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-aging, and anti-inflammatory agents in nutricosmetic formulations. Biopeptide production from biowaste requires expertise in analytical procedures and good manufacturing practice. It is hoped that new analytical procedures can be developed to simplify large-scale production and that the authorities adopt and regulate use of appropriate testing standards to guarantee the population's safety.

Comparative analysis of the degree of hydrolysis and antioxidant activity of milk and whey hydrolysates

The degree of hydrolysis and antioxidant activity of protein hydrolysates from fresh cow’s milk and whey obtained by the action of the proteolytic enzymes papain, bromelain and chymosin were compared. The lowest degree of hydrolysis in fresh milk hydrolysates was reported for sample MP1 (10 min reaction time, treatment with 0.1 mg/ml papain), and the highest percentage was obtained at hydrolysate MB12 (at 60 min reaction time, treatment with 1.0 mg/ml bromelain). For the whey samples in sample WC1 (10 min reaction time, treatment with 1.0 μl/ml chymosin), the percentage of hydrolysis was the lowest. The highest percentage was achieved at WP12 hydrolysate using papain at a concentration of 1 mg/ml and a 60-min reaction time. The obtained values for the antioxidant capacity of the hydrolysed products show a higher activity compared to the starting substrates. The highest activity in the milk hydrolysates of 11.32 mg TE/100 ml was found in variant MB3, and in the whey hydrolysates of 7.83 mg TE/100 ml - in variant WP7. Hydrolysates treated with chymosin had lower TE values compared to the hydrolysate’s variants, treated with papain and bromelain.

TMT-Based Comparative Peptidomics Analysis of Rice Seedlings under Salt Stress: An Accessible Method to Explore Plant Stress-Tolerance Processing

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is an important staple crop, particularly in Asia, and abiotic stress conditions easily reduce its yields. Salt stress is one of the critical factors affecting rice growth and yield. In this study, a tandem mass tag (TMT)-based comparative peptidomics analysis of rice seedlings under salt stress was conducted. Rice seedlings were exposed to 50 and 150 mM NaCl for 24 and 72 h, respectively, and the root and shoot tissues of different treatment groups were collected separately for peptidomics analysis. A total of 911 and 1263 nonredundant peptides were identified in two pooled shoot tissue samples, while there were 770 and 672 nonredundant peptides in two pooled root tissue samples, respectively. Compared with the control groups, dozens to hundreds of differentially expressed peptides (DEPs) were characterized in all treatment groups. To explore the potential functions of these DEPs, we analyzed the basic characteristics of DEPs and further analyzed the annotated Gene Ontology terms according to their precursor proteins. Several DEP precursor proteins were closely related to the response to salt stress, and some were derived from the functional domains of their corresponding precursors. The germination rate and cotyledon greening rate of transgenic Arabidopsis expressing two DEPs, OsSTPE2 and OsSTPE3, were significantly enhanced under salt stress. The described workflow enables the discovery of a functional pipeline for the characterization of the plant peptidome and reveals two new plant peptides that confer salinity tolerance to plants. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD037574.

Valorization of leftover green tea residues through conversion to bioactive peptides using probiotics-aided anaerobic digestion

Bioactive peptides (BPs) are protein fragments that benefit human health. To assess whether leftover green tea residues (GTRs) can serve as a resource for new BPs, we performed in silico proteolysis of GTRs using the BIOPEP database, revealing a wide range of BPs embedded in GTRs. Comparative genomics and the percentage of conserved protein analyses enabled us to select a few probiotic strains for GTR hydrolysis. The selected probiotics digested GTRs anaerobically to yield GTR-derived peptide fractions. To examine whether green tea (GT) peptide fractions could be potential mediators of host-microbe interactions, we comprehensively screened agonistic and antagonistic activities of 168 human G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). NanoLC-MS/MS analysis and thin-layer chromatography allowed the identification of peptide sequences and the composition of glycan moieties in the GTRs. Remarkably, GT peptide fractions produced by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum APsulloc 331261, a strain isolated from GT, showed a potent-binding activity for P2RY6, a GPCR involved in intestinal homeostasis. Therefore, this study suggests the potential use of probiotics-aided GTR hydrolysates as postbiotic BPs, providing a biological process for recycling GTRs from agro-waste into renewable resources as health-promoting BPs.

Novel insight into the transformation of peptides and potential benefits in brown fermented goat milk by mesoporous magnetic dispersive solid phase extraction-based peptidomics

Brown fermented goat milk as an excellent source of bioactive peptides has only been partially elucidated. Meticulously synthesized MOF@MG as magnetic sorbent for enriching endogenous peptides owned higher reproducibility and uniform distribution of peptides PI compared with ultrafiltration. Combined with UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap, fermentation for 12 h in brown goat milk with the highest overall acceptable degree through sensory evaluation was utilized to explore the transformation of peptides and health benefits, with trypsin or plasmin hydrolyzing proteins and aminopeptidase or carboxypeptidase hydrolyzing peptides to small peptides or amino acids. A total of 1317 peptides were identified by database matching (1259) and de novo sequencing (58), among 18 peptides could originate from gene-independent enzymatic formation and top 25 characteristic peptides were quantified with concentration ranging from 0.12 to 6.40 mg L^-1. Bioinformatic analysis results indicated that brown fermented goat milk possesses higher health benefits because of more than 50 peptides with potential bioactivity.

A Genomics-Based Semirational Approach for Expanding the Postbiotic Potential of Collagen Peptides Using Lactobacillaceae

Food-derived bioactive peptides (BPs) have received considerable attention as postbiotics for human gut health. Here we used a genomics-based semirational approach to expand the postbiotic potential of collagen peptides (CPs) produced from probiotic fermentation. In silico digestion revealed distinct BPs embedded in fish collagen in a protease-dependent manner. Anaerobic digestion of collagen by representative Lactobacillaceae species revealed differential substrate utilization and collagen degradation patterns. Nanoliquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of CPs showed that each species exhibited different cleavage patterns and unique peptide profiles. Remarkably, the 1-10 kDa CPs produced by Lacticaseibacillus paracasei showed agonistic activities toward G protein-coupled receptor 35 (GPR35). These CPs could repair intestinal epithelium through the GPR35-mediated extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) 1/2 signaling pathway, suggesting that probiotic-aided collagen hydrolysates can serve as postbiotics for host-microbe interactions. Therefore, this study provides an effective strategy for the rapid screening of CPs for gut health in the gastrointestinal tract.

Dynamic changes in molecular composition of black soldier fly prepupae and derived biomasses with microbial fermentation

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Lactic fermentation was used as unconventional way to valorise black soldier fly prepupae and by-products.

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Black soldier fly biomasses (prepupae, pupuria and adult flies) were characterized before and after fermentation.

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LAB fermentation modified insect protein and lipid but not chitin fraction.

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Fermentation improved BSF biomasses in terms of unsaturated fatty acids and essential amino acids.

Black soldier fly (BSF) is being increasingly used for agro-food by-products valorisation. Adult flies, puparia, and excess of prepupae are the by-products of this process, which could be further valorised. Lactic fermentation of BSF biomasses with two different strains (L. rhamnosus and L. plantarum) has been used for this purpose.

Deep changes in the molecular composition were observed, without significant differences related to the different strains used. The lipid and protein fractions were the most impacted. Fermentation enriched the biomass in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids and essential amino acids, significantly improving the nutritional properties of the substrates. Although not particularly marked, a proteolytic activity of lactobacilli was observed on the BSF muscular and cuticular proteins, especially in the samples of adult flies and puparia, where fermentation resulted more effective. Conversely, there was no evidence of chitinolytic activity.

Solid-Phase Extraction Approaches for Improving Oligosaccharide and Small Peptide Identification with Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry: A Case Study on Proteolyzed Almond Extract

Reverse-phase solid-phase extraction (SPE) is regularly used for separating and purifying food-derived oligosaccharides and peptides prior to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis. However, the diversity in physicochemical properties of peptides may prevent the complete separation of the two types of analytes. Peptides present in the oligosaccharide fraction not only interfere with glycomics analysis but also escape peptidomics analysis. This work evaluated different SPE approaches for improving LC-MS/MS analysis of both oligosaccharides and peptides through testing on peptide standards and a food sample of commercial interest (proteolyzed almond extract). Compared with conventional reverse-phase SPE, mixed-mode SPE (reverse-phase/strong cation exchange) was more effective in retaining small/hydrophilic peptides and capturing them in the high-organic fraction and thus allowed the identification of more oligosaccharides and dipeptides in the proteolyzed almond extract, with satisfactory MS/MS confirmation. Overall, mixed-mode SPE emerged as the ideal method for simultaneously improving the identification of food-derived oligosaccharides and small peptides using LC-MS/MS analysis.

Peptidomics and Capillary Electrophoresis

Peptides play a crucial role in many vitally important functions of living organisms. The goal of peptidomics is the identification of the "peptidome," the whole peptide content of a cell, organ, tissue, body fluid, or organism. In peptidomic or proteomic studies, capillary electrophoresis (CE) is an alternative technique for liquid chromatography. It is a highly efficient and fast separation method requiring extremely low amounts of sample. In peptidomic approaches, CE is commonly combined with mass spectrometric (MS) detection. Most often, CE is coupled with electrospray ionization MS and less frequently with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization MS. CE-MS has been employed in numerous studies dealing with determination of peptide biomarkers in different body fluids for various diseases, or in food peptidomic research for the analysis and identification of peptides with special biological activities. In addition to the above topics, sample preparation techniques commonly applied in peptidomics before CE separation and possibilities for peptide identification and quantification by CE-MS or CE-MS/MS methods are discussed in this chapter.

Quantitative Peptidomics of Mouse Brain After Infection With Cyst-Forming Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite capable of establishing persistent infection within the host brain and inducing severe neuropathology. Peptides are important native molecules responsible for a wide range of biological functions within the central nervous system. However, peptidome profiling in host brain during T. gondii infection has never been investigated. Using a label-free peptidomics approach (LC–MS/MS), we identified a total of 2,735 endogenous peptides from acutely infected, chronically infected and control brain samples following T. gondii infection. Quantitative analysis revealed 478 and 344 significantly differentially expressed peptides (DEPs) in the acute and chronic infection stages, respectively. Functional analysis of DEPs by Gene Ontology suggested these DEPs mainly originated from cell part and took part in cellular process. We also identified three novel neuropeptides derived from the precursor protein cholecystokinin. These results demonstrated the usefulness of quantitative peptidomics in determining bioactive peptides and elucidating their functions in the regulation of behavior modification during T. gondii infection.

Oral delivery of self-assembling bioactive peptides to target gastrointestinal tract disease

Peptides are known for their diverse bioactivities including antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer activity, all three of which are potentially useful in treating colon-associated diseases. Beside their capability to stimulate positive health effects once released in the body, peptides are able to form useful nanostructures such as hydrogels. Combining peptide bioactivity and peptide gel-forming potentials can create interesting systems that can be used for oral delivery. This combination, acting as a two-in-one system, has the potential to avoid the need for delicate entrapment of a drug or natural bioactive compound. We here review the context and research progress, to date, in this area.

Heat-Treatments Affect Protease Activities and Peptide Profiles of Ruminants' Milk

Proteases present in milk are heat-sensitive, and their activities increase or decrease depending on the intensity of the thermal treatment applied. The thermal effects on the protease activity are well-known for bovine milk but poorly understood for ovine and caprine milk. This study aimed to determine the non-specific and specific protease activities in casein and whey fractions isolated from raw bovine, ovine, and caprine milk collected in early lactation, and to determine the effects of low-temperature, long-time (63°C for 30 min) and high-temperature, short-time (85°C for 5 min) treatments on protease activities within each milk fraction. The non-specific protease activities in raw and heat-treated milk samples were determined using the substrate azocasein. Plasmin (the main protease in milk) and plasminogen-derived activities were determined using the chromogenic substrate S-2251 (D-Val-Leu-Lys-pNA dihydrochloride). Peptides were characterized using high-resolution liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The activity of all native proteases, shown as non-specific proteases, was similar between raw bovine and caprine milk samples, but lower (P < 0.05) than raw ovine milk in the whey fraction. There was no difference (P > 0.05) between the non-specific protease activity of the casein fraction of raw bovine and caprine milk samples; both had higher activity than ovine milk. After 63°C/30 min, the non-specific protease activity decreased (44%; P > 0.05) for the bovine casein fraction only. In contrast, the protease activity of the milk heated at 85°C/5 min changed depending on the species and fraction. For instance, the activity decreased by 49% for ovine whey fraction, but it increased by 68% for ovine casein fraction. Plasmin and plasminogen were in general inactivated (P > 0.05) when all milk fractions were heated at 85°C/5 min. Most of the peptides present in heat-treated milk were derived from β-casein and αS1-casein, and they matched the hydrolysis profile of cathepsin D and plasmin. Identified peptides in ruminant milk samples had purported immunomodulatory and inhibitory functions. These findings indicate that the non-specific protease activity in whey and casein fractions differed between ruminant milk species, and specific thermal treatments could be used to retain better protease activity for all ruminant milk species.

Peptides in Brewed Wines: Formation, Structure, and Function

The traditional low-alcoholic beverages, such as grape wine, sake, and rice wine, have been consumed all over the world for thousands of years, each with their unique methods of production that have been practiced for centuries. Moderate consumption of wine is generally touted as beneficial for health, although there is ongoing debate for the responsible components in wine. In this review, the structural and functional characteristics, the formation mechanisms, and their health-promoting activities of peptides in three brewed wines, grape wine, Chinese rice wine (also called Chinese Huangjiu or Chinese yellow wine), and Japanese sake, are discussed. The formation of peptides in wine imparts sensorial, technological, and biological attributes. Prospects on future research, with an emphasis on the peptide characterization, formation mechanism, physiological activity, and molecular mechanisms of action, are presented.

Simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of traditional Chinese Rushan and Naizha cheese: Peptidome profiles and bioactivity elucidation

Chinese Rushan and Naizha, the traditional acid coagulated cheese types produced from cow and yak milk, respectively, have been consumed for more than thousands of years. In this study, we aimed to characterise peptides of Rushan and Naizha in simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion using label-free based peptidomic. The identified peptide sequences were subjected to BIOPEP database driven bioactivity search. In total, 309 and 225 peptides were identified from Rushan and Naizha cheese, respectively, corresponding to 20 protein annotations. Analysis of label-free quantification found different protein digestibility, where casein was the primary source of peptides in Rushan, among which 62% represented β-casein by peptide count. The release of peptides was concentrated in specific residues 145-155 of β-casein in Rushan. In contrast, κ-casein and 7 minor milk proteins were dominant in digestion of Naizha cheese (p < 0.05). In particular, there were 11 peptides from digestion that were exact matches in databases to sequences with immunomodulatory, antibacterial, ACE-inhibition, DPP IV inhibition and antioxidant activities. Four novel angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory (ACEI) activities peptides (YPFPGPIH, LKNWGEGW, RELEEIR, and HPHPHLS) were explored using molecular docking, chemically synthesized, and in vitro ACEI activity. The peptides had lower estimated free energy values (-5.34 to -7.66 kcal/mol), and exhibited the lowest IC₅₀ value of 109.5, 77.7, 196.6, and 64.30 μM, respectively. Our study is the most comprehensive peptidomic analysis of Chinese Rushan and Naizha cheese to date.

Effect of ripening time on peptide dynamics and bioactive peptide composition in Tulum cheese

Skin bag Tulum cheeses traditionally produced in the Central Taurus region of Turkey were studied to identify peptide profiles by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry over 180 d of ripening. After mass spectrometry analysis, 203 peptides were identified: 59 from α_S1-casein (CN), 11 from α_S2-CN, 129 from β-CN, and 4 from κ-CN. Numbers of α_S1- and β-CN-derived peptides increased with increasing number of ripening days due to the dependence of newly formed peptides on proteolysis. However, similar increases were not observed for α_S2- and κ-CN-derived peptides. Most identified peptides consisted of β-CN-derived peptides, followed by α_S1-, α_S2-, and κ-CN-derived peptides. Among these, bioactive peptides were found, including antihypertensive, antibacterial, antioxidant, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitory, metal chelating, skin regenerating, glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion enhancing, opioid, cathepsin B inhibitory, prolyl endopeptidase inhibitory, immunomodulatory, brain function improving, antiamnesic, antihypercholesterolemic, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic peptides.

A comprehensive review on bioactive peptides derived from milk and milk products of minor dairy species

Abstract

Milk from different species has been exploited for the isolation of various functional ingredients for decades. Irrespective of the source, milk is considered as a complete food, as it provides essential nutrients required by the human body. Proteins and their fractions are valuable sources of bioactive peptides that might exert a health beneficial role in the human body such as immune-modulation, antioxidant activity, ACE-inhibitory activity, anti-neoplastic, anti-microbial, etc. In milk, bioactive peptides may either be present in their natural form or released from their parental proteins due to enzymatic action. The increasing interest in bioactive peptides among researchers has lately augmented the exploration of minor dairy species such as sheep, goat, camel, mithun, mare, and donkey. Alternative to cow, milk from minor dairy species have also been proven to be healthier from infancy to older age owing to their higher digestibility and other nutritive components. Therefore, realizing the significance of milk from such species and incentivized interest towards the derivatization of bioactive peptides, the present review highlights the significant research achievements on bioactive peptides from milk and milk products of minor dairy species.

Graphical abstract

Identification and Detection of Bioactive Peptides in Milk and Dairy Products: Remarks about Agro-Foods

Food-based components represent major sources of functional bioactive compounds. Milk is a rich source of multiple bioactive peptides that not only help to fulfill consumers 'nutritional requirements but also play a significant role in preventing several health disorders. Understanding the chemical composition of milk and its products is critical for producing consistent and high-quality dairy products and functional dairy ingredients. Over the last two decades, peptides have gained significant attention by scientific evidence for its beneficial health impacts besides their established nutrient value. Increasing awareness of essential milk proteins has facilitated the development of novel milk protein products that are progressively required for nutritional benefits. The need to better understand the beneficial effects of milk-protein derived peptides has, therefore, led to the development of analytical approaches for the isolation, separation and identification of bioactive peptides in complex dairy products. Continuous emphasis is on the biological function and nutritional characteristics of milk constituents using several powerful techniques, namely omics, model cell lines, gut microbiome analysis and imaging techniques. This review briefly describes the state-of-the-art approach of peptidomics and lipidomics profiling approaches for the identification and detection of milk-derived bioactive peptides while taking into account recent progress in their analysis and emphasizing the difficulty of analysis of these functional and endogenous peptides.

A novel heptapeptide derived from Crassostrea gigas shows anticoagulant activity by targeting for thrombin active domain

A novel food-derived anticoagulant heptapeptides (P-3-CG) was isolated and characterized from oyster (Crassostrea gigas) pepsin hydrolysate. P-3-CG competed with fibrinogen against thrombin active domain by a spontaneous and exothermic reaction which was entropically driven. The residue Lys7 of P-3-CG anchored thrombin S₁ pocket strongly, which inhibited fibrinogen binding to the thrombin, then blocked the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. The fibrinogen clotting time was prolonged to 27.55 s, and the reciprocally authenticated results of dynamic light scattering and scanning electron microscope further explained for fibrinogen clotting time extension. Inhibition of amidolytic activity of thrombin was affected significantly by reaction time and P-3-CG concentration. Furthermore, P-3-CG prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time significantly in vitro/vivo, and decreased the mortality which was confirmed by pulmonary pathological slide results. The obtained results demonstrated that P-3-CG may potentially serve as an alternative food-derived anticoagulant peptide that could be utilized for thrombosis prevention.

In Vitro Production and Identification of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitory Peptides Derived from Distilled Spent Grain Prolamin Isolate

Distilled spent grain (DSG), the biggest by-product of the Chinese liquor industry, is rich in protein (167.8 g/kg DSG dry weight (DW)). Accounting for 60% of the total protein, prolamins are isolated from dried DSG (DDSG). In this study, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides were screened from the prolamin hydrolysates of DDSG using two independent active-directed separations, ultrafiltration and reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) coupled with ACE inhibitory activity evaluation. Six novel ACE inhibitory peptides, AVQ, YPQ, NQL, AYLQ, VLPVLS, and VLPSLN, were successfully identified and quantified from the active RP-HPLC fractions. AVQ and YPQ exhibited the highest activity, having the concentration inducing 50% inhibition (IC50) values for ACE of 181.0 and 220.0 μM, respectively. It was observed that VLPVLS was the most abundant peptide (16.96 mg/g DW) in prolamins. The results indicated that prolamin hydrolysates from DDSG could be served as a source of ACE inhibitory peptides.

Proteolytic activity of Lactobacillus strains isolated from Mongolian traditional dairy products: A multiparametric analysis

The aim of our study was to characterize the proteolytic activity of 170 Lactobacillus strains isolated from traditional Mongolian dairy products (yogurt and fermented milk), and to investigate their capacity to generate bioactive peptides during milk fermentation. All isolates were screened for proteolytic activity using skim milk agar-well diffusion test. Fifteen strains (9 Lactobacillus helveticus and 6 Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus) were then selected and further evaluated using an original strategy based on multiparametric analysis, taking into account growth rate, acidification capacity, proteolytic activity, cell envelope associated peptidase (CEP) profile and LC-MS/MS analysis of peptides. All parameters were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA). Results showed that strain growth and acidification correlate with peptide production and that Mongolian L. helveticus strains differ from Western strains in terms of CEP distribution. The PCA revealed that CEP profiles are major determinants of β-casein hydrolysis patterns. Strains with distinctive proteolytic activities were identified.

Hidden "Digestome": Current Analytical Approaches Provide Incomplete Peptide Inventories of Food Digests

Analyzing an in vitro gastroduodenal digest of whey proteins by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to high-resolution/high-sensitivity tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), we sought to evaluate if state-of-art peptidomics provide comprehensive peptide coverage of food "digestomes". A multitude of small-sized peptides derived from both α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin as well as disulfide cross-linked hetero-oligomers remained unassigned, even when the digests were compared before and after S-S reduction. The precipitation with 12% trichloroacetic acid demonstrated the occurrence of large-sized polypeptides that escaped the bioinformatic identification. The analysis of a HPLC-MS/MS run with different proteomic search engines generated dissimilar peptide subsets, thus emphasizing the demand of refined searching algorithms. Although the MS/MS fragmentation of monocharged ions with exclusion of non-peptide-interfering compounds enlarged the inventory of short peptides, the overall picture of the "digestome" was still incomplete. These findings raise relevant implications for the identification of possible food-derived bioactive peptides or allergenic determinants.

Preparation, Bioavailability, and Mechanism of Emerging Activities of Ile-Pro-Pro and Val-Pro-Pro

Ile-Pro-Pro and Val-Pro-Pro are two most well-known food-derived bioactive peptides, initially identified as inhibitors of angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) from a sample of sour milk. These two peptides were identified in fermented and enzymatic hydrolyzed cow and non-cow (that is, goat, sheep, buffalo, yak, camel, mare, and donkey) milk, as well as sourdough prepared from wheat, rye, and malt. Similar to other bioactive peptides, bioavailability of these peptides is low (about 0.1%), reaching picomolar concentration in human plasma; they showed blood pressure lowering activity in animals and in human, via improved endothelial function, activation of ACE2, and anti-inflammatory property. Emerging bioactivities of these two peptides toward against metabolic syndrome and bone-protection received limited attention, but may open up new applications of these peptides as functional food ingredients. Further studies are warranted to determine the best source as well as to identify novel enzymes (particularly from traditional fermented milk products) to improve the efficiency of production, to characterize possible peptide receptors using a combination of omics technology with molecular methods to understand if these two peptides act as signal-like molecules, to improve their bioavailability, and to explore new applications based on emerging bioactivities.

Bioactive peptides from milk: animal determinants and their implications in human health

Milk is an important protein source in human diets, providing around 32 g protein/l (for bovine milk, which constitutes some 85% of global consumption). The most abundant milk proteins are α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, αs-casein, β-casein, and κ-casein. Besides their nutritional value, milk proteins play a crucial role in the processing properties of milk, such as solubility, water bonding, heat stability, renneting and foaming, among others. In addition, and most importantly for this review, these proteins are the main source of bioactive components in milk. Due to the wide range of proposed beneficial effects on human health, milk proteins are considered as potential ingredients for the production of health-promoting functional foods. However, most of the evidence for bioactive effects comes from in vitro studies, and there is a need for further research to fully evaluate the true potential of milk-derived bioactive factors. Animal genetics and animal nutrition play an important role in the relative proportions of milk proteins and could be used to manipulate the concentration of specific bioactive peptides in milk from ruminants. Unfortunately, only a few studies in the literature have focused on changes in milk bioactive peptides associated to animal genetics and animal nutrition. The knowledge described in the present review may set the basis for further research and for the development of new dairy products with healthy and beneficial properties for humans.

Profiling of Multiphosphorylated Peptides in Kefir and Their Release During Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion

Casein phosphopeptides are multiphosphorylated milk peptides, which can have anticariogenic activity and improve mineral absorption by binding bivalent metal ions. The present study investigated phosphopeptides in kefir because fermentation may lead to their enhanced release from milk proteins. After selective enrichment by hydroxyapatite extraction, phosphopeptides and their phosphorylation degree were identified by matrix-assisted desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) before and after enzymatic dephosphorylation. Peptide structures were determined by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS) revealing 27 phosphopeptides in kefir, including nine peptides containing the motif pSpSpSEE, which binds minerals most efficiently. The majority (18) of phosphopeptides were derived from β-casein, but only three were derived from the most abundant milk protein α_s1-casein. After simulated gastrointestinal digestion, MALDI-TOF-MS analysis detected eight putative phosphopeptides in kefir, four of which were assigned by UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS to α_s2-casein_124-133, α_s2-casein_137-146, β-casein_30-40, and κ-casein_147-161. These results indicate that kefir is a good dietary source of multiphosphorylated peptides.

Proteomic analysis of goat milk kefir: Profiling the fermentation-time dependent protein digestion and identification of potential peptides with biological activity

Kefir is a fermented dairy product, associated to health benefits because of being a probiotic and due to the presence of molecules with biological activity. In this work, we have profiled the peptide composition of goat milk kefir at three different fermentation times using a peptidomics approach, in order to study changes in peptide concentrations and patterns of protein digestion throughout the fermentation time. We identified 2328 unique peptides corresponding to 22 protein annotations, with a maximum of peptides found after 24 h fermentation. We established different digestion patterns according to the nature of the proteins, and quantified the changes in the peptides appearing in all the fermentation times. We also identified 11 peptides that matched exactly to sequences with biological activity in databases, almost all of them belonging to caseins. This is the most comprehensive proteomic analysis of goat milk kefir to date.

[Preliminary Study on the Biological Markers for I-IIb Stage Non-small Cell Lung Cancer Based on a Serum-peptidomics]

背景与目的

非小细胞肺癌是发病率最高的一种肺恶性肿瘤，早发现、早诊断、早治疗是其治疗原则，因其发病隐匿，缺乏早期筛查的特异性标志物，多数患者就诊时已处于晚期阶段，导致其5年生存率较低，预后不理想。探索一种敏感的生物学标志物，是目前肺癌诊疗的重点。本文基于差异多肽组学技术，旨在筛选Ⅰ期-Ⅱb期非小细胞肺癌的血清生物标志物。

方法

利用纳升超高效液相色谱联合四级杆轨道阱质谱技术，比较和筛选正常健康人群、肺部良性病变患者、非小细胞肺癌患者血清中的差异多肽片段，通过对目标肽段的鉴别和定量分析，探寻非小细胞肺癌早期诊断的肿瘤生物标志物。

结果

通过与人类蛋白质组数据库进行比对，共鉴定到545个多肽，分别来自118个蛋白。将各组样本中肽段的谱图数进行比较，共筛选出201个差异多肽，经定量分析发现峰面积的变异系数（coefficient of variation, CV）≤30%的目标肽段共计7个，其中在各组间呈趋势变化的有2条肽段，分别是肺癌组中表达下调的肽段QGAKIPKPEASFSPR和肺癌组中表达上调的肽段CDDYRLC，它们分别来自于中间α球蛋白抑制因子H4蛋白（ITIH4）和基质γ-羧基谷氨酸蛋白（MGP）。

结论

将血清多肽组学用于筛选肿瘤标志物的研究，可为非小细胞肺癌的早期诊断提供新线索，其中ITIH4与MGP蛋白水解的特异性肽段是潜在早期非小细胞肺癌患者的血清标志物。

Discovery and identification of antimicrobial peptides in Sichuan pepper (Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim) seeds by peptidomics and bioinformatics

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have generated growing attention because of the increasing bacterial resistance. However, the discovery and identification of AMPs have proven to be challenging due to the complex purification procedure associated with conventional methods. For the reasons given above, it is necessary to explore more efficient ways to obtain AMPs. We established a new method for discovery and identification of novel AMPs by proteomics and bioinformatics from Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim seeds protein hydrolysate directly. This process was initially achieved by employing ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry/mass (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS) spectrometry to identify peptides derived from Z. bungeanum Maxim seed protein hydrolysates. Three online servers were introduced to predict potential AMPs. Sixteen potential AMPs ranging from 1.5 to 2.7 kDa were predicted and chemically synthesized, one of which, designated NP-6, inhibited activity against all the tested strains according to antimicrobial assay. Time-killing assay indicated that NP-6 could quickly kill almost all the Escherichia coli within 180 min and Staphylococcus aureus at 360 min. Moreover, the simulation 3D structure of NP-6 was consisted of α-helix and random coil, and this was verified by circular dichroism (CD) spectra. At last, the scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of E. coli and S. aureus treated by NP-6 demonstrated that NP-6 had a significant effect on bacteria cell morphology. Our findings provide an efficient approach for discovery of AMPs, and Z. bungeanum Maxim seeds may be a nature resource to extract antimicrobial agents.

Identification of new bioactive peptides from Kefir milk through proteopeptidomics: Bioprospection of antihypertensive molecules

Kefir, a probiotic beverage prepared from fermented milk, has been associated with antihypertensive activity. However, the bioactive molecules responsible for this activity still remain unclear. Therefore, in this study we aim to evaluate the mechanisms of the antihypertensive effects of Kefir in the two-kidney one-clip hypertension model, and to bioprospect for bioactive peptides identified by proteomic methodologies. Treatment with Kefir was performed via gavage, and resulted in a 37 mmHg reduction in systolic arterial pressure and 19% inhibition of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) activity. For the proteopeptidomic study, the protein extract of Kefir beverage and non-fermented bovine milk were analysed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, and their tryptic digestion products sequenced via Shotgun proteomics (Q-Exactive mass spectrometer). A list of 35 peptides with potential hypertensive activity due to ACE inhibition were identified. These results demonstrate the benefits of Kefir products, and may guide the design of new antihypertensive drugs.

Production of Bioactive Peptides by Lactobacillus Species: From Gene to Application

To compensate for their amino acid auxotrophy, lactobacilli have developed the ability to hydrolyze proteins present in their environment. This proteolytic activity not only generates the free amino acids needed by the bacteria, but also a large variety of peptides, some of which are endowed with biological activities. These so-called “bioactive peptides” (BAPs) are interesting from a nutrition and healthcare perspective. The use of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as lactobacilli is an effective strategy for production and valorization of new BAPs. The proteolytic activity of lactobacilli is exerted in a strain- and species-dependent manner: each species exhibits different proteinase content, leading to a large variety of proteolytic activities. This underlines the high potential of Lactobacillus strains to produce novel hydrolysates and BAPs of major interest. This review aims at discussing the potential of different Lactobacillus species to release BAPs from fermentation media and processes. Strategies used for peptide production are presented. Additionally, we propose a methodology to select the most promising Lactobacillus strains as sources of BAPs. This methodology combines conventional approaches and in silico analyses.

Incorporating salal berry (Gaultheria shallon) and blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) pomace in yogurt for the development of a beverage with antidiabetic properties

In this study aqueous extracts from salal berry (SB) and blackcurrant pomace (BCP) were used to reformulate yogurt and the anti-diabetic properties of the beverage were investigated during 4 weeks of cold storage at 4 °C. Results indicated that α-amylase, α-glucosidase and DPP-IV inhibitory activities increased with storage time for all samples. At the end of storage period α-amylase, α-glucosidase and DPP-IV inhibition were >61%, 62% and 56% respectively for all yogurt types. This increase in bioactivity during cold storage is attributed to the viability of lactic acid bacteria (∼108 cfu/g), which is maintained for 4 weeks. Enzyme inhibition increased similarly for all yogurt types at 4 °C except for α-glucosidase. Yogurt with BCP showed the highest potency to inhibit α-glucosidase (>90%) with an IC50 value of 0.20 mg/ml (week 4). A peptidomic approach based on liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was used for the separation and identification of peptides generated in three types of yogurt. A total of 486 peptides mainly from caseins were identified, of which 15 have documented bioactivity, predominantly as antimicrobial agents or ACE-inhibitors.

In vitro and in silico studies of 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitory activity of the cowpea Gln-Asp-Phe peptide

Previous studies have shown that cowpea protein positively interferes with cholesterol metabolism. In this study, we evaluated the ability of the fraction containing peptides of <3 kDa, as well as that of the Gln-Asp-Phe (QDF) peptide, derived from cowpea β-vignin protein, to inhibit HMG-CoA reductase activity. We established isolation and chromatography procedures to effectively obtain the protein with a purity above 95%. In silico predictions were performed to identify peptide sequences capable of interacting with HMG-CoA reductase. In vitro experiments showed that the fraction containing peptides of <3 kDa displayed inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase activity. The tripeptide QDF inhibits HMG-CoA reductase (IC₅₀ = 12.8 μM) in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, in silico studies revealed the binding profile of the QDF peptide and hinted at the molecular interactions that are responsible for its activity. Therefore, this study shows, for the first time, a peptide from cowpea β-vignin protein that inhibits HMG-CoA reductase and the chemical modifications that should be investigated to evaluate its binding profile.