Detection of counterfeit brand spirits using 1H NMR fingerprints in comparison to sensory analysis

Comprehensive analysis of risk factors (methanol, acetaldehyde and higher alcohols) in alcoholic beverages and their reduction strategies: GC-MS analysis and modified activated carbon adsorption and characterization

This study endeavors to examine the levels of risk factors in alcoholic beverages and propose mitigation strategies. GC-MS analysis was utilized to assess risk factors in various distilled-spirits. The content of such risk factors in spirits ranked as follows: vodka ≈ gin < baijiu < whiskey < brandy, and all were adhering to the Chinese national standard. Additionally, a method was refined to alleviate these risks, employing various reagents for activated carbon modification and evaluating their adsorption efficiency for risk factors reduction. Oxalic acid-modified activated carbon exhibited promising adsorption rates for risk factors with acceptable flavor compounds loss, rendering it a prospective solution for health hazard reduction. Characterization via SEM and nitrogen-adsorption-desorption was conducted on the optimal material, complemented by sensory experiments to optimize its application. This study offers valuable insights into the content of risk factors in alcoholic beverages, aiding in improving quality and safety of alcoholic beverages.

Uncovering the Counterfeit: A study of whiskey authenticity through volatile organic compound fingerprinting, aroma and color sensory analysis

This study presents a method employing gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME-GC-MS), supplemented with chemometrics (Soft independent modelling of class analogies - SIMCA), to analyze volatile organic compound (VOCs) profiles in suspect whiskey samples. Furthermore, a sensory analysis of aroma and color was conducted with a panel of 52 non-trained volunteers to evaluate their ability to discriminate and preference for counterfeit whiskeys. The HS-SPME-GC-MS method successfully distinguished 41 seized samples from authentic beverages. Interestingly, sensory analysis revealed that panelists could differentiate between counterfeit and authentic samples with a reference standard but did not consistently show a preference for aroma. In some cases, there was even a preference for the color of counterfeit whiskeys. The findings suggest that sensorial tests alone may not effectively distinguish counterfeit from authentic whiskeys, especially for non-expert consumers, highlighting the need for analytical instrumentation methods in fraud detection.

From inspection to analysis: A combined approach to identifying counterfeit whiskeys using HS-GC-FID and bottle integrity

Counterfeiting of alcoholic beverages, particularly high-value spirits such as whiskey, presents significant challenges for regulators, manufacturers, and consumers. In this study, we introduce and validate a novel application of headspace extraction (HS) followed by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) for the quantitative determination of ethanol content in 42 suspected counterfeit brazilian samples of whiskeys. This method, in conjunction with visual inspection of material inconsistencies, offers a combined approach to identify potential cases of fraud. The HS-GC-FID findings revealed that only 19% of the analyzed samples had ethanol content in the limits declared on the label, emphasizing the role of ethanol content as a chemical marker for suspected beverage fraud.

Anticounterfeiting and Fraud Mitigation Solutions for High-value Food Products

Globalization and the increasing complexity of supply chains have allowed food fraud to expand to a great extent. Some of the most serious effects of these deceitful activities are damage to a brand's reputation and trust, economic losses, and public health risks. The usual victims of food fraud are dairy, meat, fish, and seafood products, as well as fats/oils and alcoholic drinks. The purpose of this review paper is to present an updated analysis of the currently available anticounterfeit technologies and their application to the four most fraud-affected food supply chains. An assessment that was conducted to determine when the adoption of a combination of technologies could enhance food safety and brand protection is also provided. The obtained results indicate that electronic and data-driven technologies (RFID devices and digital traceability systems) are still in their infancy in the food sectors that are subjected the most to fraudulent activities. Research is necessary to develop innovative digital and physical technologies to "outsmart" such fraudsters and to prevent their illicit actions in the food sector.

Recent advances in whiskey analysis for authentication, discrimination, and quality control

In order to safeguard authentic whiskey products from fraudulent or counterfeit practices, high throughput solutions that provide robust, rapid, and reliable solutions are required. The implementation of some analytical strategies is quite challenging or costly in routine analysis. Qualitative screening of whiskey products has been explored, but due to the nonspecificity of the chemical compounds, a more quantitative confirmatory technique is required to validate the result of the whiskey analysis. Hence, combining analytical and chemometric methods has been fundamental in whiskey sample differentiation and classification. A comprehensive update on the most relevant and current analytical techniques, including spectroscopic, chromatographic, and novel technologies employed within the last 5 years in whiskey analysis for authentication, discrimination, and quality control, are presented. Furthermore, the technical challenges in employing these analytical techniques, future trends, and perspectives are emphasized.

Investigation of Solid Phase Microextraction Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and 1H qNMR Spectroscopy as Potential Methods for the Authentication of Baijiu Spirits

The baijiu spirit is often the focus of fraudulent activity due to the widely varying prices of the products. In this work, Solid Phase Microextraction Gas Chromatography (SPME GCMS), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy and 1H qNMR spectroscopy were evaluated as potential methods to authenticate baijiu samples. Data were collected for 30 baijiu samples produced by seven different distilleries. The data from the SPME GCMS and FTIR methods were treated by a Principal Component Analysis to identify clusters that would suggest chemical differences in the products from different distilleries. The results suggest that SPME GCMS has the potential to be a fully portable method for baijiu authentication. FTIR did not appear suitable for authentication but can be used to find the %ABV range of the sample. 1H quantitative NMR (1H qNMR) was utilized to quantify the ethanol concentrations and calculate the observable congener chemistry comprising ester, ethanol, methanol, fusel alcohol, and organic acids. Discrepancies in ethanol content were observed in three samples, and a lack of major congeners in two samples indicates the possible presence of a counterfeit product. Detailed and quantitative congener chemistry is obtainable by NMR and provides a possible fingerprint analysis for the authentication and quality control of baijiu style, producer, and the length of the ageing process.

Quality assessment and chemical diversity of Australian propolis from Apis mellifera bees

The propolis industry is well established in European, South American and East Asian countries. Within Australia, this industry is beginning to emerge with a few small-scale producers. To contribute to the development of the Australian propolis industry, the present study aimed to examine the quality and chemical diversity of propolis collected from various regions across Australia. The results of testing 158 samples indicated that Australian propolis had pure resin yielding from 2 to 81% by weight, total phenolic content and total flavonoid content in one gram of dry extract ranging from a few up to 181 mg of gallic acid equivalent and 145 mg of quercetin equivalent, respectively. Some Australian propolis showed more potent antioxidant activity than the well-known Brazilian green, Brazilian red, and Uruguayan and New Zealand poplar-type propolis in an in vitro DPPH assay. In addition, an HPLC–UV analysis resulted in the identification of 16 Australian propolis types which can be considered as high-grade propolis owing to their high total phenolic content. Chemometric analysis of their ¹H NMR spectra revealed that propolis originating from the eastern and western coasts of Australia could be significantly discriminated based on their chemical composition.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Metabolomics with Double Pulsed-Field-Gradient Echo and Automatized Solvent Suppression Spectroscopy for Multivariate Data Matrix Applied in Novel Wine and Juice Discriminant Analysis

The quality of foods has led researchers to use various analytical methods to determine the amounts of principal food constituents; some of them are the NMR techniques with a multivariate statistical analysis (NMR-MSA). The present work introduces a set of NMR-MSA novelties. First, the use of a double pulsed-field-gradient echo (DPFGE) experiment with a refocusing band-selective uniform response pure-phase selective pulse for the selective excitation of a 5–10-ppm range of wine samples reveals novel broad ¹H resonances. Second, an NMR-MSA foodomics approach to discriminate between wine samples produced from the same Cabernet Sauvignon variety fermented with different yeast strains proposed for large-scale alcohol reductions. Third a comparative study between a nonsupervised Principal Component Analysis (PCA), supervised standard partial (PLS-DA), and sparse (sPLS-DA) least squares discriminant analysis, as well as orthogonal projections to a latent structures discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), for obtaining holistic fingerprints. The MSA discriminated between different Cabernet Sauvignon fermentation schemes and juice varieties (apple, apricot, and orange) or juice authentications (puree, nectar, concentrated, and commercial juice fruit drinks). The new pulse sequence DPFGE demonstrated an enhanced sensitivity in the aromatic zone of wine samples, allowing a better application of different unsupervised and supervised multivariate statistical analysis approaches.

Differentiation and classification of Chinese Luzhou-flavor liquors with different geographical origins based on fingerprint and chemometric analysis

In order to differentiate and characterize Chinese Luzhou-flavor liquor according to geographical origins, the volatile flavor compounds were analyzed for forty commercial Luzhou-flavor liquor samples from Sichuan, Jiangsu, and Hubei provinces. A total of 113 volatile flavor compounds were quantified; among them, 29 flavor compounds were quantified according to the internal standard method. The differences in flavor composition among different brands of Luzhou-flavor liquor were compared. A data matrix of 64 (flavor components) × 40 (samples) was studied and interpreted using chemometric analysis. The research object could be naturally clustered according to geographical origin (brand) based on the hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), principal component analysis (PCA) and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) methods. A 100% of predication ability was obtained by the application of K-nearest neighbor model (KNN) for study sample classification. The results demonstrate that the abundance of volatile flavor components in liquors combined with appropriate multivariate statistical methods could be used for the division and traceability of liquors from different geographic origins. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study can provide the basis for the identification of liquor authenticity and the traceability of liquor.

Effects of solutes on the alcohol-stimulative taste of vodkas

Quantitative analyses of chemical components and sensory tests were carried out on vodka samples to test for stimulative taste of ethanol. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR) spectra of the vodkas were measured with 600 MHz NMR. The effects of salts on the alcohol-stimulative taste were investigated for 15% (v/v) EtOH-H₂O solution. ¹H NMR spectroscopy results showed that a magnesium salt could reduce the stimulative taste of ethanol organoleptically and, at the same time, strengthen the hydrogen-bonding structure of water-ethanol, although the effect of the magnesium could not be clarified quantitatively in the products of vodka. It was also suggested that a change in the water-ethanol hydrogen-bonding structure could lead to a reduction in the stimulative taste of ethanol in vodka.

Application of 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy as Spirit Drinks Screener for Quality and Authenticity Control

Due to legal regulations, the rise of globalised (online) commerce and the need for public health protection, the analysis of spirit drinks (alcoholic beverages >15% vol) is a task with growing importance for governmental and commercial laboratories. In this article a newly developed method using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for the simultaneous determination of 15 substances relevant to assessing the quality and authenticity of spirit drinks is described. The new method starts with a simple and rapid sample preparation and does not need an internal standard. For each sample, a group of 1H-NMR spectra is recorded, among them a two-dimensional spectrum for analyte identification and one-dimensional spectra with suppression of solvent signals for quantification. Using the Pulse Length Based Concentration Determination (PULCON) method, concentrations are calculated from curve fits of the characteristic signals for each analyte. The optimisation of the spectra, their evaluation and the transfer of the results are done fully automatically. Glucose, fructose, sucrose, acetic acid, citric acid, formic acid, ethyl acetate, ethyl lactate, acetaldehyde, methanol, n-propanol, isobutanol, isopentanol, 2-phenylethanol and 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (HMF) can be quantified with an overall accuracy better than 8%. This new NMR-based targeted quantification method enables the simultaneous and efficient quantification of relevant spirit drinks ingredients in their typical concentration ranges in one process with good accuracy. It has proven to be a reliable method for all kinds of spirit drinks in routine food control.

Developing anti-counterfeiting measures: The role of smart packaging

Counterfeiting of food and beverage products is rife and premium brands are often targeted by fraudsters. Such is the case with Scotch whisky, a global, reputable brand revered for its heritage and tradition. Using Scotch whisky as a case study, the aim of this paper is to review existing literature and industry information to determine the market and personal consequences of counterfeiting activities and consider the packaging related anti-counterfeiting measures that can be employed within a wider anti-counterfeiting strategy. A typology of counterfeiting activities is developed including: tear-down counterfeiting, product overruns, malicious activities and document counterfeiting. Anti-counterfeiting measures are used to deter, detect and control counterfeiting activities and different packaging related approaches include the use of smart covert and overt technology. Most smart packaging-related anti-counterfeit technologies are stand-alone systems and this presents a vulnerability. An integrated anti-counterfeiting measures strategy, employed by business, the supply chain and the government is required to reduce the risk of the sale of counterfeit food and beverage products.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy in Food Science: A Comprehensive Review

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a robust method, which can rapidly analyze mixtures at the molecular level without requiring separation and/or purification steps, making it ideal for applications in food science. Despite its increasing popularity among food scientists, NMR is still an underutilized methodology in this area, mainly due to its high cost, relatively low sensitivity, and the lack of NMR expertise by many food scientists. The aim of this review is to help bridge the knowledge gap that may exist when attempting to apply NMR methodologies to the field of food science. We begin by covering the basic principles required to apply NMR to the study of foods and nutrients. A description of the discipline of chemometrics is provided, as the combination of NMR with multivariate statistical analysis is a powerful approach for addressing modern challenges in food science. Furthermore, a comprehensive overview of recent and key applications in the areas of compositional analysis, food authentication, quality control, and human nutrition is provided. In addition to standard NMR techniques, more sophisticated NMR applications are also presented, although limitations, gaps, and potentials are discussed. We hope this review will help scientists gain some of the knowledge required to apply the powerful methodology of NMR to the rich and diverse field of food science.

Examining characteristics of recorded and unrecorded alcohol consumers in Kenya

BACKGROUND

Due to media reports of several deaths, consumption of unrecorded alcohol (i.e., alcohol brewed at home) has emerged as a public health threat in developing countries like Kenya. Empirical data on this issue, however, is scarce. This investigation compared demographic characteristics of Kenyans who drank recorded (regulated) and unrecorded alcohol.

METHODS

We examined all respondents who consumed alcohol in the past month (N = 718) on the 2015 nationally representative Kenya STEPwise survey. Descriptive statistics and bivariate logistic regression examined proportion of respondents consuming unrecorded alcohol, and social demographic factors associated with unrecorded alcohol consumption, respectively.

RESULTS

The sample was primarily male (86%), married (64%), middle class or higher (64%), with an average age of 37 years. Participants reported an average of 2.5 drinking events and 4.3 binge-drinking occasions per month. Overall, 37% of our sample consumed unrecorded alcohol. Compared to those with incomplete primary education or lower, individuals who completed primary education or above were less likely to report consuming unrecorded alcohol (OR = 0.22, 95% CI: 0.12-0.43). Compared to poorest and poor respondents, those identifying as middle class or above were less likely to consume unrecorded alcohol (OR = 0.47, 95% CI: 0.29-.78). Current smokers (OR = 2.19, 95% CI: 1.34-3.60) and those with higher binge drinking occasions in the past month (OR = 1.03, 95% CI: 1.004-1.07) were significantly more likely to consume unrecorded alcohol.

CONCLUSION

Kenyan adults who consume unrecorded alcohol engage in more binge drinking occasions, smoke, and have lower levels of education and socioeconomic status. It is vital that health promotion interventions aimed at reducing unrecorded alcohol consumption be tailored and targeted to individuals with low socio-economic status in Kenya.

Overview on Untargeted Methods to Combat Food Frauds: A Focus on Fishery Products

Authenticity and traceability of food products are of primary importance at all levels of the production process, from raw materials to finished products. Authentication is also a key aspect for accurate labeling of food, which is required to help consumers in selecting appropriate types of food products. With the aim of guaranteeing the authenticity of foods, various methodological approaches have been devised over the past years, mainly based on either targeted or untargeted analyses. In this review, a brief overview of current analytical methods tailored to authenticity studies, with special regard to fishery products, is provided. Focus is placed on untargeted methods that are attracting the interest of the analytical community thanks to their rapidity and high throughput; such methods enable a fast collection of “fingerprinting signals” referred to each authentic food, subsequently stored into large database for the construction of specific information repositories. In the present case, methods capable of detecting fish adulteration/substitution and involving sensory, physicochemical, DNA-based, chromatographic, and spectroscopic measurements, combined with chemometric tools, are illustrated and commented on.