Application of the GC-HRMS based method for monitoring of short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in vegetable oils and fish

Spatial distribution and ecological risk assessment of short and medium chain chlorinated paraffins in water and sediments of river Ravi, Pakistan

Short (SCCPs) and medium (MCCPs) chain chlorinated paraffins being the emerging organic pollutants have raised serious concerns due to their widespread use and related human health risks. However, their occurrence in aquatic bodies like rivers and associated damage to ecological integrity is yet unknown in some regions of the world. The current study is the first ever assessment of SCCPs and MCCPs in sediment and water of river Ravi, Pakistan. Spatial occurrence and associated ecological risks were investigated from sediments (n = 16) and composite water samples (n = 8) collected at eight locations along the stretch of river Ravi. The concentrations of SCCPs and MCCPs varied from below limit of detection ( Collapse

Key Words

• Aquatic body
• Partitioning coefficient
• Risk assessment
• Source identification
• Total organic carbon

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MESH Headings

• Humans
• Animals
• Chlorine
• Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated/analysis
• Paraffin/analysis
• Rivers
• Pakistan
• Environmental Monitoring
• Risk Assessment
• Carbon
• China

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Grants Collapse

Affiliation(s)

Areej Tahir College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
Naeem Akhtar Abbasi College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan.
Chang He Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4102, Australia; Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Contaminants Exposure and Health, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Pollution Control, Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
Sajid Rashid Ahmad College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
Mujtaba Baqar Sustainable Development Study Centre, Government College University, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
Abdul Qadir College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan

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Fingerprinting of chlorinated paraffins and their transformation products in plastic consumer products

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) can be classified according to their length as short-chain (SC, C10-C13), medium-chain (MC, C14-C17) and long-chain (LC, C ≥ 18) CPs. Technical CP-mixtures can contain a wide range of carbon- (C-, nC = 10-30) and chlorine- (Cl-, nCl = 3-19) homologues. CPs are high-production volume chemicals (>106 t/y). They are used as flame-retardants, plasticizers and coolant fluids. Due to the persistence, bioaccumulation, long-range environmental transport potential and adverse effects, SCCPs are regulated as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by the Stockholm Convention. Transformation of CPs can lead to the formation of unsaturated compounds such as chlorinated mono- (CO), di- (CdiO) and tri-olefins (CtriO). Such transformation reactions can occur at different stages of CP manipulation providing characteristic C-/Cl-homologue distributions. All this results in unique patterns that collectively create a fingerprint, which can be distinguished from CP-containing samples. Therefore, CP-fingerprinting can develop into a promising tool for future source apportionment studies and with it, the reduction of environmental burden of CPs and hazards to humans. Herein, CP-containing plastics were studied to establish fingerprints and develop this method. We analyzed four household items by reverse-phase liquid-chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer with an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization source and an Orbitrap mass analyzer (RP-LC-APCI-Orbitrap-MS) operated at a resolution of 120000 (FWHM at m/z 200). MS-data of different CP-, CO-, CdiO- and CtriO-homologues were efficiently processed with an R-based automatic mass spectra evaluation routine (RASER). From the 16720 ions searched for, up to 4300 ions per sample were assigned to 340 C-/Cl-homologues of CPs and their transformation products. Specific fingerprints were deduced from the C-/Cl-homologues distributions, the carbon- (nC) and chlorine- (nCl) numbers and saturation degree. These fingerprints were compared with the ones obtained by a GC-ECNI-Orbitrap-MS method.

Chlorinated paraffins: A review of sample preparation, instrumental analysis, and occurrence and distribution in food samples

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are released into natural environment during processes of production and utilization with diet being the most important exposure route of CPs for human beings. Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) have lower molecular weights, higher vapor pressures, and higher water solubilities than medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) and long-chain chlorinated paraffins (LCCPs), making SCCPs more likely to be readily released into the environment. Thus, SCCPs were enlisted as persistent organic pollutants being included in the Stockholm Convention in 2017. This review article summarized sample preparation and instrumental analysis methods of CPs for food types such as oil, meat, and aquatic foods. In addition, reported concentrations and profiles, dietary intake and risk assessment of CPs in food samples from various regions, such as China, Japan, and Germany are discussed for studies published between 2005 and 2022. This review is timely given the lack of a recent literature summary of the concentration and distribution of CPs in food. All these studies warranted the necessity to maintain continuous monitoring of CPs concentrations and their potential health risks given the concentrations of CPs in food are increasing worldwide.

Are fish oil-based dietary supplements a significant source of exposure to chlorinated paraffins?

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are an emerging group of environmental pollutants associated with adverse effects on human health (such as endocrine disruption and possible carcinogenicity). CPs are classified into several groups: short- (SCCPs), medium- (MCCPs) and long-chain chlorinated paraffins (LCCPs). In this study, CPs were determined in fish oil-based omega-3 dietary supplements (DS) representing widely consumed products that might be contaminated with various lipophilic contaminants including CPs. The CPs were isolated from DS (n = 85) by solid phase extraction. The SCCPs and MCCPs were determined by gas chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry operated in a negative chemical ionisation mode. The LCCPs (up to C₂₁) were screened using supercritical fluid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry with electrospray ionisation operated in negative mode. The CP concentrations varied from <0.01 to 56.48 μg/g fat for SCCPs (median 0.12 μg/g fat; limit of quantification, LOQ, for SCCPs was exceeded in 51 out of 85 samples) and from <0.03-89.08 μg/g fat for MCCPs (median 0.26 μg/g fat; LOQ for MCCPs was exceeded in 66 out of 85 samples), respectively. The LCCPs were not quantified in this study, nevertheless their limit of detection (0.5 μg/g fat) was exceeded in 7 out of 85 samples. Due to high levels of CPs, DS might pose as a significant source of CPs exposure to some population groups.

Application of Liquid- and Supercritical Fluid Chromatography Coupled with High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry for the Analysis of Short-, Medium-, and Long-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins in Dietary Supplements

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are an emerging and ubiquitous group of environmental pollutants associated with adverse effects on human health, including endocrine disruption and possible carcinogenicity. In this study, supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) and ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) — both coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) — methods for the analysis of short-, medium-, and long-chain CPs in fish oil-based dietary supplements were developed and validated at concentration levels of 0.6 and 3.0 µg/g lipid weight (lw). The recoveries were in the range of 80–96% and repeatabilities, expressed as relative standard deviations, were <19%. The limits of detection for the UHPLC–HRMS method (from 0.03 to 0.05 µg/g lw) were 5 to 10 times lower than those obtained by SFC–HRMS (from 0.13 to 0.50 µg/lw).

Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in human blood serum of Czech population

Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs; MCCPs) are widespread environmental pollutants with bioaccumulation potential and adverse effects on human health. The analysis of blood serum is an important strategy to assess the human exposure to various contaminants, including SCCPs and MCCPs. Lately, the information about the exposure of Chinese population has been reported; nevertheless, data on human exposure to SCCPs and MCCPs outside East Asia are still very limited. In this pilot study, SCCPs and MCCPs were determined in 27 serum samples obtained from Czech adults. The samples were extracted by a three-step extraction (repeated with a clean solvent) by a mixture of n-hexane:diethyl ether (9:1, v/v) with subsequent clean-up on Florisil® solid phase extraction column. Gas chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry operated in negative chemical ionisation was employed for the instrumental analysis. The method recoveries ranged from 71 to 89% with repeatabilities of <20% (expressed as relative standard deviation). In the samples, SCCP concentrations were in the range of <150-2600 ng/g lipid weight, lw (median 370 ng/g lw) and the MCCP concentrations were in the range of <200-2110 ng/g lw (median 360 ng/g lw), respectively. To the best of our knowledge, our reported results are the first data about chlorinated paraffins in human blood serum in Europe, showing exposure to these compounds with yet to be studied effects on human health.