Fusarium mycotoxins' occurrence in cereals harvested from Croatian fields

Comparative Analysis of Maize Physico-Chemical Parameters and Mycotoxin Levels in Dual Environments

Maize (Zea mays L.) stands as a vital staple food globally, holding significant nutritional and economic value. However, its susceptibility to mycotoxin contamination under stressful environmental conditions poses a considerable concern. This study aimed to assess the quality and pasting characteristics of maize varieties across two distinct regions and examine the occurrence of mycotoxins influenced by climatic factors. Five maize varieties were cultivated in triplicate in the Golegã and Coruche regions. The nutritional composition (protein, fat, fiber, ash, starch, and lutein), pasting properties, and mycotoxin levels were evaluated. A statistical analysis revealed notable differences in the nutritional profiles of the maize varieties between the two regions, particularly in the protein and lutein content. The peak viscosity ranged from 6430 to 8599 cP and from 4548 to 8178 cP in the maize varieties from the Coruche and Golegã regions, respectively. Additionally, a significant correlation was observed between the climatic conditions and the grain nutritional quality components (p < 0.05). The M variety showed the highest ash content, protein content, final viscosity, and setback viscosity and the lowest peak viscosity. The Y variety revealed the lowest fat, fiber, and lutein content and the maximum peak viscosity. The incidence of mycotoxins was notably higher in the varieties from Coruche, which was potentially attributable to higher temperatures and lower precipitation levels leading to more frequent drought conditions. Fumonisin B1 was detected in 58% of the varieties from Coruche and 33% of the samples from Golegã, while deoxynivalenol was found in 87% and 80% of the varieties from Coruche and Golegã, respectively. The H variety, which was harvested in Coruche, exhibited the highest number of fumonisins and higher amounts of protein, lutein, and fat, while fumonisins were not detected in the Golegã region, which was potentially influenced by the precipitation levels. The K variety revealed higher protein and lutein contents, a lower amount of fat, excellent pasting properties (a higher peak viscosity and holding strength and a lower peak time), and no fumonisins B1 or B2. This variety may be considered well adapted to higher temperatures and drier conditions, as verified in the Coruche region. In conclusion, our study underscored the profound impact of environmental factors on the quality and occurrence of mycotoxins in maize varieties.

Climate Change and Mycotoxins Trends in Serbia and Croatia: A 15-Year Review

This review examines the 15-year presence of mycotoxins in food from Serbia and Croatia to provide a comprehensive overview of trends. Encompassing the timeframe from 2009 to 2023, this study integrates data from both countries and investigates climate change patterns. The results from Serbia focus primarily on maize and milk and show a strong dependence of contamination on weather conditions. However, there is limited data on mycotoxins in cereals other than maize, as well as in other food categories. Conversely, Croatia has a broader spectrum of studies, with significant attention given to milk and maize, along with more research on other cereals, meat, and meat products compared to Serbia. Over the investigated 15-year period, both Serbia and Croatia have experienced notable shifts in climate, including fluctuations in temperature, precipitation, and humidity levels. These changes have significantly influenced agriculture, consequently affecting the occurrence of mycotoxins in various food products. The results summarized in this 15-year review indicate the urgent need for further research and action to address mycotoxins contamination in Serbian and Croatian food supply chains. This urgency is further emphasized by the changing climatic conditions and their potential to exacerbate public health and food safety risks associated with mycotoxins.

Toxicity, biodegradation, and nutritional intervention mechanism of zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEA), a global mycotoxin commonly found in a variety of grain products and animal feed, causes damage to the gastrointestinal tract, immune organs, liver and reproductive system. Many treatments, including physical, chemical and biological methods, have been reported for the degradation of ZEA. Each degradation method has different degradation efficacies and distinct mechanisms. In this article, the global pollution status, hazard and toxicity of ZEA are summarized. We also review the biological detoxification methods and nutritional regulation strategies for alleviating the toxicity of ZEA. Moreover, we discuss the molecular detoxification mechanism of ZEA to help explore more efficient detoxification methods to better reduce the global pollution and hazard of ZEA.

Global distribution, toxicity to humans and animals, biodegradation, and nutritional mitigation of deoxynivalenol: A review

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the main types of B trichothecenes, and it causes health-related issues in humans and animals and imposes considerable challenges to food and feed safety globally each year. This review investigates the global hazards of DON, describes the occurrence of DON in food and feed in different countries, and systematically uncovers the mechanisms of the various toxic effects of DON. For DON pollution, many treatments have been reported on the degradation of DON, and each of the treatments has different degradation efficacies and degrades DON by a distinct mechanism. These treatments include physical, chemical, and biological methods and mitigation strategies. Biodegradation methods include microorganisms, enzymes, and biological antifungal agents, which are of great research significance in food processing because of their high efficiency, low environmental hazards, and drug resistance. And we also reviewed the mechanisms of biodegradation methods of DON, the adsorption and antagonism effects of microorganisms, and the different chemical transformation mechanisms of enzymes. Moreover, nutritional mitigation including common nutrients (amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and microelements) and plant extracts was discussed in this review, and the mitigation mechanism of DON toxicity was elaborated from the biochemical point of view. These findings help explore various approaches to achieve the best efficiency and applicability, overcome DON pollution worldwide, ensure the sustainability and safety of food processing, and explore potential therapeutic options with the ability to reduce the deleterious effects of DON in humans and animals.

Climate Change-A Global Threat Resulting in Increasing Mycotoxin Occurrence

During the last decade, scientists have given increasingly frequent warnings about global warming, linking it to mycotoxin-producing moulds in various geographical regions across the world. In the future, more pronounced climate change could alter host resilience and host-pathogen interaction and have a significant impact on the development of toxicogenic moulds and the production of their secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins. The current climate attracts attention and calls for novel diagnostic tools and notions about the biological features of agricultural cultivars and toxicogenic moulds. Since European climate environments offer steadily rising opportunities for Aspergillus flavus growth, an increased risk of cereal contamination with highly toxic aflatoxins shall be witnessed in the future. On top of that, the profile (representation) of certain mycotoxigenic Fusarium species is changing ever more substantially, while the rise in frequency of Fusarium graminearum contamination, as a species which is able to produce several toxic mycotoxins, seen in northern and central Europe, is becoming a major concern. In the following paper, a high-quality approach to a preventative strategy is tailored to put a stop to the toxicogenic mould- and mycotoxin-induced contamination of foods and feeds in the foreseeable future.

Development of a real-time PCR and multiplex PCR assay for the detection and identification of mycotoxigenic fungi in stored maize grains

This study aimed to identify important mycotoxigenic fungi and accurate detection of mycotoxin in stored maize grains using molecular methods. The current study also optimised the real-time PCR (RT-PCR) assay. The melting curve was established to identify isolated fungal species of Aspergillus (4), Fusarium (3), Penicillium (3), and Alternaria (one). A multiplex polymerase chain reaction (mPCR) technique was developed for the detection and characterisation of mycotoxin producing fungi, mycotoxin metabolic pathway genes, and the determination of eleven mycotoxins in stored maize grains using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The mPCR results indicated positive signals for potentially mycotoxigenic fungal species tested of Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria. A protocol for multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (mRT-PCR) was tested to distinguish between free and contaminated, stored maize with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The expression pattern of four aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway genes, AFB1 (aflQ, aflP, aflO, and aflD), was a good marker for contaminated, stored maize grains. HPLC analysis showed that maize grain samples were contaminated with mycotoxins, and the concentration was above the detection level. The results indicate that the polyphasic approach might provide a sensitive, rapid, and accurate method for detecting and identifying mycotoxigenic fungal species and mycotoxins in stored maize grains.

Type B Trichothecenes in Cereal Grains and Their Products: Recent Advances on Occurrence, Toxicology, Analysis and Post-Harvest Decontamination Strategies

Type B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol) and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3G) are secondary toxic metabolites produced mainly by mycotoxigenic Fusarium fungi and have been recognized as natural contaminants in cereals and cereal-based foods. The latest studies have proven the various negative effects of type B trichothecenes on human health. Due to the widespread occurrence of Fusarium species, contamination by these mycotoxins has become an important aspect for public health and agro-food systems worldwide. Hence, their monitoring and surveillance in various foods have received a significant deal of attention in recent years. In this review, an up-to-date overview of the occurrence profile of major type B trichothecenes and DON-3G in cereal grains and their toxicological implications are outlined. Furthermore, current trends in analytical methodologies for their determination are overviewed. This review also covers the factors affecting the production of these mycotoxins, as well as the management strategies currently employed to mitigate their contamination in foods. Information presented in this review provides good insight into the progress that has been achieved in the last years for monitoring type B trichothecenes and DON-3G, and also would help the researchers in their further investigations on metabolic pathway analysis and toxicological studies of these Fusarium mycotoxins.

Biofumigation for the Management of Fusarium graminearum in a Wheat-Maize Rotation

Fusarium graminearum is the most important causal agent of head blight in wheat, and stalk and ear rot in maize. A field experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of incorporation of Brassicaceae cover crops on Fusarium graminearum in a wheat-maize rotation. Five species belonging to Brassicaceae (Brassica juncea, Eruca sativa, Raphanus sativus, B. carinata, B. oleracea var. caulorapa L.) were used in the field experiment to investigate their potential to suppress F. graminearum inoculum in soil, disease incidence in maize and to reduce subsequent mycotoxin contamination in maize. Brassica juncea was found to contain the highest glucosinolate concentration in shoots (31 µmol g^-1). Severity of ear rot and stalk rot in maize was not significantly reduced in the amended plots. Incorporation of R. sativus 'Terranova' significantly decreased the amount of F. graminearum DNA by 58% compared with the cultivated fallow treatment, however the DNA concentration was not significantly different to fallow uncultivated. Fusarium graminearum DNA and deoxynivalenol in maize was 50% lower after incorporation of B. oleracea var. caulorapa L. compared to after fallow treatment but the difference was not significant. The brassica crops used in the present field experiment were not effective in suppressing F. graminearum, therefore further studies to optimise the current approach are recommended.

Toxicity of zearalenone and its nutritional intervention by natural products

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a toxic secondary metabolite mainly produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium, and is often present in various food and feed ingredients such as corn and wheat. The structure of ZEN is similar to that of natural estrogen, and it can bind to estrogen receptors and has estrogenic activity. Therefore, it can cause endocrine-disrupting effects and promote the proliferation of estrogen receptor-positive cell lines. In addition, ZEN can cause oxidative damage, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, and other hazards, resulting in systemic toxic effects, including reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and immunotoxicity. In the past few decades, researchers have tried many ways to remove ZEN from food and feed, but it is still a challenge to eliminate it. In recent years, natural compounds have become of interest for their excellent protective effects on human health from food contaminants. Researchers have discovered that natural compounds often used as dietary supplements can effectively alleviate ZEN-induced systemic toxic effects. Most of the compounds mitigate ZEN-induced toxicity through antioxidant effects. In this article, the contamination of food and feed by ZEN and the various toxic effects and mechanisms of ZEN are reviewed, as well as the mitigation effects of natural compounds on ZEN-induced toxicity.

Roles of stress response-related signaling and its contribution to the toxicity of zearalenone in mammals

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin frequently found in cereal crops and cereal-derived foodstuffs worldwide. It affects plant productivity, and is also a serious hazard to humans and animals if being exposed to food/feed contaminated by ZEA. Studies over the last decade have shown that the toxicity of ZEA in animals is mainly mediated by the various stress responses, such as endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, oxidative stress, and others. Accumulating evidence shows that oxidative stress and ER stress signaling are actively implicated in and contributes to the pathophysiology of various diseases. Biochemically, the deleterious effects of ZEA are associated with apoptosis, DNA damage, and lipid peroxidation by regulating the expression of genes implicated in these biological processes. Despite these findings, the underlying mechanisms responsible for these alterations remain unclear. This review summarized the characteristics, metabolism, toxicity and the deleterious effects of ZEA exposure in various tissues of animals. Stress response signaling implicated in the toxicity as well as potential therapeutic options with the ability to reduce the deleterious effects of ZEA in animals were highlighted and discussed.

The control of Fusarium growth and decontamination of produced mycotoxins by lactic acid bacteria

Global crop and food contamination with mycotoxins are one of the primary worldwide concerns, while there are several restrictions regarding approaching conventional physical and chemical mycotoxins decontamination methods due to nutrition loss, sensory attribute reduction in foods, chemical residual, inconvenient operation, high cost of equipment, and high energy consumption of some methods. In this regard, the overarching challenges of mycotoxin contamination in food and food crops require the development of biological decontamination strategies. Using certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as generally recognized safe (GRAS) compounds is one of the most effective alternatives due to their potential to release antifungal metabolites against various fungal factors species. This review highlights the potential applications of LAB as biodetoxificant agents and summarizes their decontamination activities against Fusarium growth and Fusarium mycotoxins released into food/feed. Firstly, the occurrence of Fusarium and the instrumental and bioanalytical methods for the analysis of mycotoxins were in-depth discussed. Upgraded knowledge on the biosynthesis pathway of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium offers new insightful ideas clarifying the function of these secondary metabolites. Moreover, the characterization of LAB metabolites and their impact on the decontamination of the mycotoxin from Fusarium, besides the main mechanisms of mycotoxin decontamination, are covered. While the thematic growth inhibition of Fusarium and decontamination of their mycotoxin by LAB is very complex, approaching certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is worth deeper investigations.

Determination of T-2 and HT-2 Toxins in Seed of Milk Thistle [Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.] Using Immunoaffinity Column by UPLC-MS/MS

Milk thistle [Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.] achieved a significant increase in interest over the past few years from local and foreign pharmaceutical corporations. The silymarin complex of constituents extracted from milk thistle achenes provides compelling health benefits primarily thanks to antioxidant activities and hepatoprotective effects. However, consuming mycotoxin-contaminated plant material can cause immunosuppression and hepatotoxic problems. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a method for the determination of mycotoxin content in milk thistle. Fusarium toxins as T-2 and HT-2 toxins in grown milk thistle harvested from a breeding station in the Czech Republic during 2020-2021 were studied. The analysis of T-2 and HT-2 toxins was performed by UPLC-MS/MS after immunoaffinity columns EASI-EXTRACT® T-2 & HT-2 clean up. All analysed samples of milk thistle were contaminated with T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin. The content of T-2 toxin in the samples from 2020 was in the range of 122.7-290.2 µg/kg and HT-2 toxin 157.0-319.0 µg/kg. In 2021, the content of T-2 toxin was in the range of 28.8-69.9 µg/kg and HT-2 toxin was 24.2-75.4 µg/kg. The results show that the climatic conditions of the year of harvesting have a highly statistically significant effect on the content of T-2 and HT-2 toxins in milk thistle.

Biocontrol Methods in Avoidance and Downsizing of Mycotoxin Contamination of Food Crops

By increasing the resistance of seeds against abiotic and biotic stress, the possibility of cereal mold contamination and hence the occurrence of secondary mold metabolites mycotoxins decreases. The use of biological methods of seed treatment represents a complementary strategy, which can be implemented as an environmental-friendlier approach to increase the agricultural sustainability. Whereas the use of resistant cultivars helps to reduce mold growth and mycotoxin contamination at the very beginning of the production chain, biological detoxification of cereals provides additional weapons against fungal pathogens in the later stage. Most efficient techniques can be selected and combined on an industrial scale to reduce losses and boost crop yields and agriculture sustainability, increasing at the same time food and feed safety. This paper strives to emphasize the possibility of implementation of biocontrol methods in the production of resistant seeds and the prevention and reduction in cereal mycotoxin contamination.

Regulated Mycotoxin Occurrence and Co-Occurrence in Croatian Cereals

A total of 209 samples of various cereal crops (maize, wheat, barley, rye and oats) grown in Croatian fields during 2016 and 2017 were collected to analyze and determine the occurrence and co-occurrence of EU regulated mycotoxins in cereals (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, DON, FB1, FB2, ZEA, T-2, HT-2 and OTA). The analysis, performed by a validated confirmatory LC-MS/MS method based on a dilute and shoot principle, highlighted Fusarium mycotoxins as the main contaminants, often co-occurring in samples from both years (50.0% in 2016 and 33.7% in 2017). DON was found to be the most frequent mycotoxin, present in 72.5% of the 2016 samples and 32.6% of the 2017 samples, while maize proved to be the most contaminated cereal type of both years with FUM as the most abundant mycotoxins, with an average concentration of 1180 µg/kg. Moderate temperatures with periods of high humidity favored the accumulation of DON in wheat samples instead of other Fusarium mycotoxins, while similar conditions favored maize contamination with FUM. A total of 8.3% of all the 2016 harvest samples and 7.9% of the 2017 harvest samples were assessed as non-compliant, containing mycotoxins in concentrations higher than the levels set by the EU legislation for food.

Bioprospecting Phenols as Inhibitors of Trichothecene-Producing Fusarium: Sustainable Approaches to the Management of Wheat Pathogens

Fusarium spp. are ubiquitous fungi able to cause Fusarium head blight and Fusarium foot and root rot on wheat. Among relevant pathogenic species, Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum cause significant yield and quality loss and result in contamination of the grain with mycotoxins, mainly type B trichothecenes, which are a major health concern for humans and animals. Phenolic compounds of natural origin are being increasingly explored as fungicides on those pathogens. This review summarizes recent research activities related to the antifungal and anti-mycotoxigenic activity of natural phenolic compounds against Fusarium, including studies into the mechanisms of action of major exogenous phenolic inhibitors, their structure-activity interaction, and the combined effect of these compounds with other natural products or with conventional fungicides in mycotoxin modulation. The role of high-throughput analysis tools to decipher key signaling molecules able to modulate the production of mycotoxins and the development of sustainable formulations enhancing potential inhibitors' efficacy are also discussed.

Fungicide Resistance in Fusarium graminearum Species Complex

Fusariosis affects cereal grain crops worldwide and is responsible for devastating crops, reducing grain quality and yield, and producing strong mycotoxins. Benzimidazoles and triazoles were recommended to combat fusariosis; however, there were reports of resistance, making it necessary to reflect on the reasons for this occurrence. The purpose of this review was to evaluate the fusariosis resistance to the main agricultural fungicides, to observe whether this resistance can cause changes in the production of mycotoxins, and to verify the influence of resistance on the cereal grain production chain. Scientific articles were selected from the ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Pubmed databases, published at maximum 10 years ago and covering the main fungicide classes that combat phytopathogenesis and mycotoxin production. A high occurrence of resistance to carbendazim was found, while few reports of resistance to triazoles are available. The effectiveness of strobilurins is doubtful, due to an increase of mycotoxins linked to it. It is possible to conclude that the large-scale use of fungicides can select resistant strains that will contribute to an increase in the production of mycotoxins and harm sectors of the world economy, not only the agriculture, but also sanitation and foreign trade.

Food-Origin Mycotoxin-Induced Neurotoxicity: Intend to Break the Rules of Neuroglia Cells

Mycotoxins are key risk factors in human food and animal feed. Most of food-origin mycotoxins could easily enter the organism and evoke systemic toxic effects, such as aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisin B1 (FB1), and 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NPA). For the last decade, the researches have provided much evidences in vivo and in vitro that the brain is an important target organ on mycotoxin-mediated neurotoxic phenomenon and neurodegenerative diseases. As is known to all, glial cells are the best regulator and defender of neurons, and a few evaluations about the effects of mycotoxins on glial cells such as astrocytes or microglia have been conducted. The fact that mycotoxin contamination may be a key factor in neurotoxicity and glial dysfunction is exactly the reason why we reviewed the activation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial function changes of glial cells under mycotoxin infection and summarized the mycotoxin-mediated glial cell proliferation disorders, death pathways, and inflammatory responses. The purpose of this paper is to analyze various pathways in which common food-derived mycotoxins can induce glial toxicity and provide a novel perspective for future research on the neurodegenerative diseases.

Primary research on sampling scheme for analyzing mycotoxin distribution in wheat and rice fields

BACKGROUND

Mycotoxins are among the most severe food contaminants. Deoxynivalenol and aflatoxin contamination are predominant in wheat and rice, respectively. Nowadays, there are no standardized and approved grain-sampling schemes worldwide. This study aimed to develop a scientific grain-sampling scheme to investigate the regularity of mycotoxin distributed in wheat and rice fields. The data were analyzed with analysis of variance and cluster analysis to select a better sampling scheme.

RESULTS

Considering the influences of the weather before harvest (temperature, humidity, wind direction, and other conditions), we sampled grains from different places in different farmlands and detected the mycotoxin content of the sampled grains. The mycotoxin content had extremely significant differences in the area of rice fields (P<0.01) and significant differences in the area of wheat fields (P<0.05). The filtering effect existed peripheral the field areas, especially peripheral the humid areas, where the fungi were filtered and the toxin were easily produced. Furthermore, the upwind direction peripheral the field areas cause more filterature effect than other wind direction. Although 97% of mycotoxins in wheat can be removed through the shelling process, the toxin content were not obviously affected by rice lodging in the field. According to the cluster analysis, the peripheral and middle areas were divided into the same group with higher mycotoxin content.

CONCLUSION

This paper developed a sampling scheme to detect the mycotoxin content of wheat and rice in the field, considering the temperature and humidity of the weather, locations, and other grain contamination conditions before harvest. Meanwhile, the sampling rule of lodging and wind direction in the field was also assayed. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Mycotoxins in wheat flour: occurrence and co-occurrence assessment in samples from Southern Brazil

The goal of this survey was to evaluate the presence and concentration as well as the co-occurrence of legislated and non-legislated mycotoxins in wheat flour samples from Brazil. A total of 200 wheat flour samples were analysed by a validated multi-mycotoxins method. DON was the mycotoxin with the highest occurrence, being present in 100% of the analysed samples and showing contamination in both years and regions (53-2905 μg kg^-1). ZEN was detected in 51% (<LOQ-50 μg kg^-1) of the samples, while T-2 (not legislated in Brazil) was detected in 13.5% (<LOQ-1506 μg kg^-1) of all samples. Regarding co-occurrence, all samples were contaminated with two to three mycotoxins.

Occurrence of Fusarium spp. in Maize Grain Harvested in Portugal and Accumulation of Related Mycotoxins during Storage

Maize is an important worldwide commodity susceptible to fungal contamination in the field, at harvest, and during storage. This work aimed to determine the occurrence of Fusarium spp. in maize grains produced in the Tagus Valley region of Portugal and the levels of related mycotoxins in the 2018 harvest and during their storage for six months in barrels, mimicking silos conditions. Continuous monitoring of temperature, CO2, and relative humidity levels were done, as well as the concentration of mycotoxins were evaluated and correlated with the presence of Fusarium spp. F. verticillioides was identified as the predominant Fusarium species. Zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and toxin T2 were not found at harvest and after storage. Maize grains showed some variability in the levels of fumonisins (Fum B1 and Fum B2). At the harvest, fumonisin B1 ranged from 1297 to 2037 µg/kg, and fumonisin B2 ranged from 411 to 618 µg/kg. Fumonisins showed a tendency to increase (20 to 40%) during six months of storage. Although a correlation between the levels of fumonisins and the monitoring parameters was not established, CO2 levels may be used to predict fungal activity during storage. The composition of the fungal population during storage may predict the incidence of mycotoxins.

Occurrence, Impact on Agriculture, Human Health, and Management Strategies of Zearalenone in Food and Feed: A Review

Mycotoxins represent an assorted range of secondary fungal metabolites that extensively occur in numerous food and feed ingredients at any stage during pre- and post-harvest conditions. Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin categorized as a xenoestrogen poses structural similarity with natural estrogens that enables its binding to the estrogen receptors leading to hormonal misbalance and numerous reproductive diseases. ZEN is mainly found in crops belonging to temperate regions, primarily in maize and other cereal crops that form an important part of various food and feed. Because of the significant adverse effects of ZEN on both human and animal, there is an alarming need for effective detection, mitigation, and management strategies to assure food and feed safety and security. The present review tends to provide an updated overview of the different sources, occurrence and biosynthetic mechanisms of ZEN in various food and feed. It also provides insight to its harmful effects on human health and agriculture along with its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

A Two-Year Occurrence of Fusarium T-2 and HT-2 Toxin in Croatian Cereals Relative of the Regional Weather

To investigate into the T-2 and HT-2 toxin occurrence, 240 samples of unprocessed cereals (maize, wheat, barley, and oats) were sampled from different fields located in three Croatian regions during 2017-2018. In all samples, sum concentrations of T-2/HT-2 toxin were determined using the ELISA method, while the LC-MS/MS was used as a confirmatory method for both mycotoxins in positive samples (>LOD) and the establishment of T-2 over HT-2 toxin ratios. The results showed oats to be the most contaminated cereal, with T-2/HT-2 toxins detected in 70.0% of samples, followed by barley (40.9%), maize (26.8%) and wheat (19.2%), with the mean T-2/HT-2 ratio ranging from 1:2.7 in maize to 1:4.4 in oats. Sum T-2/HT-2 concentrations in two maize samples were higher than the indicative level recommended by the European Commission, necessitating subsequent investigations into the conditions under which these poorly investigated mycotoxins are produced. Statistically significantly (p < 0.05) higher concentrations of T-2/HT-2 toxin were determined in oats throughout study regions as compared to those found in wheat, but not maize and barley, while the concentrations of these mycotoxins were related to the regional weather in Croatia.

Incidence of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Wheat and Maize from Albania

In this study, ten Fusarium toxins were analysed in wheat and maize commodities from Albania. In total, 71 samples of wheat and 45 samples of maize were collected from different producing regions. The analytical procedure consisted of a simple one-step sample extraction followed by the determination of toxins using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Fusarium toxins were found in 23% of the analysed wheat samples and in 78% of maize samples. In maize samples, most often fumonisins B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2) were found. They were present in 76% of samples. They were detected in all positive samples except in one with concentrations ranging from 59.9 to 16,970 μg/kg. The sum of FB1 and FB2 exceeded the EU maximum permitted level (4000 μg/kg) in 31% of maize samples. In wheat samples, the only detected Fusarium mycotoxin was deoxynivalenol (DON), present in 23% of samples. In one sample with the concentration of 1916 μg/kg, the EU maximum permitted level (1250 μg/kg) was exceeded. This is the first report on the presence of Fusarium toxins in wheat and maize grains cultivated in Albania.

Relationship between the Content of β-D-Glucans and Infection with Fusarium Pathogens in Oat (Avena sativa L.) Plants

In human nutrition, oats (Avena sativa L.) are mainly used for their dietary fiber, β-D-glucans and protein content. The content of β-D-glucans in oat grain is 2-7% and is influenced by genetic and/or environmental factors. High levels of this cell walls polysaccharide are observed in naked grains of cultivated oat. It the work, the relationship between the content of β-D-glucans in oat grain and the infection with Fusarium graminearum (FG) and Fusarium culmorum (FC) was analyzed. The hypothesis was that oats with higher content of β-D-glucans are better protected and the manifestation of artificial inoculation with Fusarium strains is weaker. In the 22 oat samples analyzed, the content of β-D-glucans was 0.71-5.06%. In controls, the average content was 2.15% for hulled and 3.25% for naked grains of cultivated oats. After the infection, a decrease was observed in all, naked, hulled and wild oats. As an evidence of lower rate of infection, statistically significant lower percentage of pathogen DNA (0.39%) and less deoxynivalenol (DON) mycotoxin (FC infection 10.66 mg/kg and FG 4.92 mg/kg) were observed in naked grains compared to hulled where the level of pathogen DNA was 2.09% and the average DON level was 21.95 mg/kg (FC) and 5.52 mg/kg (FG).

Seasonal Variation in Aflatoxin Levels in Edible Seeds, Estimation of Its Dietary Intake and Vitamin E Levels in Southern Areas of Punjab, Pakistan

A total of 779 samples of edible nuts (melon seeds, watermelon seeds, pumpkin seeds, and cantaloupe seeds) from Southern Punjab (Pakistan), were collected during the summer and the winter seasons. The natural occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs) and vitamin E (tocopherols) levels were investigated using HPLC. The results have shown that 180 (43.4%) of samples from the winter season and 122 (33.4%) samples from the summer season were found positive for AFs. Elevated average levels of total AFs (20.9 ± 3.10 μg/kg, dry weight) were observed in watermelon seeds without shell, and the lowest average amount (15.9 ± 3.60 μg/kg) were documented in melon seeds without shell samples from the winter season. An elevated average amount of total AFs 17.3 ± 1.50 μg/kg was found in pumpkin seeds available without a shell. The results have documented a significant difference in total AFs levels in edible seeds available with shells versus without shells (α = 0.05 & 0.01). The highest dietary intake of 6.30 μg/kg/day was found in female individuals from consuming pumpkin seeds (without shell) in the winter season. A value of 3.00 μg/kg/day was found in pumpkin seed without shell in the summer season in female individuals. The highest total tocopherol levels were 22.2 ± 7.70 ng/100 g in pumpkin seeds samples from the winter season and 14.5 ± 5.50 mg/100 g in melon seed samples from the summer season. The variation of total tocopherol levels in edible seeds among the winter and summer seasons showed a significant difference (p ≤ 0.0054), except watermelon seeds samples with non-significant differences (p ≥ 0.183).

Transformations of Selected Fusarium Toxins and Their Modified Forms During Malt Loaf Production

An increasing number of studies have found that modified mycotoxins, such as free mycotoxins, naturally occur in food, and severely impact food safety. The present study investigated concentrations of trichothecenes nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEN), together with their modified forms, nivalenol-3-glucoside (NIV-3G), deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3G), and zearalenone-14-glucoside (ZEN-14G) and zearalenone-14-sulfate (ZEN-14S), respectively, at successive stages of malt loaf production (flour, dough kneading/fermentation, loaf baking). Toxins in bakery products originate in flour produced from wheat grain that is naturally contaminated with Fusarium culmorum. Mycotoxin concentrations were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry, and did not significantly change during the successive stages of bread production. After the dough kneading/fermentation stage, concentrations of NIV-3G and DON-3G were slightly increased, whereas those of ZEN and ZEN-14S were slightly decreased. The largest average decrease (21%) was found in ZEN-14G. After the baking stage, the average concentrations of NIV-3G, DON-3G, ZEN-14S, and ZEN-14G in the loaf crumb and crust decreased by 23%, 28%, 27%, and 20%, respectively, compared with those in the dough. During this technical process, the concentration of ZEN-14G in loaf crumb significantly decreased by an average of 48%, and those of ZEN, ZEN-14S, and ZEN-14G in loaf crust decreased by an average of 29%, 42%, and 48%, respectively. Considering the possibility of modified mycotoxins degradation to free forms, as well as the ability to synthesize them from free forms during technological processes, it would be prudent to consider them together during analysis.

Fusarium Head Blight, Mycotoxins and Strategies for Their Reduction

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of microscopic fungi, which commonly contaminate cereal grains. Contamination of small-grain cereals and maize with toxic metabolites of fungi, both pathogenic and saprotrophic, is one of the particularly important problems in global agriculture. Fusarium species are among the dangerous cereal pathogens with a high toxicity potential. Secondary metabolites of these fungi, such as deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and fumonisin B1 are among five most important mycotoxins on a European and world scale. The use of various methods to limit the development of Fusarium cereal head diseases and grain contamination with mycotoxins, before and after harvest, is an important element of sustainable agriculture and production of safe food. The applied strategies utilize chemical and non-chemical methods, including agronomic, physical and biological treatments. Biological methods now occupy a special place in plant protection as an element of biocontrol of fungal pathogens by inhibiting their development and reducing mycotoxins in grain. According to the literature, Good Agricultural Practices are the best line of defense for controlling Fusarium toxin contamination of cereal and maize grains. However, fluctuations in weather conditions can significantly reduce the effectiveness of plants protection methods against infection with Fusarium spp. and grain accumulation of mycotoxins.

Phenyllactic Acid Produced by Geotrichum candidum Reduces Fusarium sporotrichioides and F. langsethiae Growth and T-2 Toxin Concentration

Fusariumsporotrichioides and F. langsethiae are present in barley crops. Their toxic metabolites, mainly T-2 toxin, affect the quality and safety of raw material and final products such as beer. Therefore, it is crucial to reduce Fusarium spp. proliferation and T-2 toxin contamination during the brewing process. The addition of Geotrichum candidum has been previously demonstrated to reduce the proliferation of Fusarium spp. and the production of toxic metabolites, but the mechanism of action is still not known. Thus, this study focuses on the elucidation of the interaction mechanism between G.candidum and Fusarium spp. in order to improve this bioprocess. First, over a period of 168 h, the co-culture kinetics showed an almost 90% reduction in T-2 toxin concentration, starting at 24 h. Second, sequential cultures lead to a reduction in Fusarium growth and T-2 toxin concentration. Simultaneously, it was demonstrated that G. candidum produces phenyllactic acid (PLA) at the early stages of growth, which could potentially be responsible for the reduction in Fusarium growth and T-2 toxin concentration. To prove the PLA effect, F. sporotrichioides and F.langsethiae were cultivated in PLA supplemented medium. The expected results were achieved with 0.3 g/L of PLA. These promising results contribute to a better understanding of the bioprocess, allowing its optimization at an up-scaled industrial level.

Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence and Exposure Assessment Approach in Foodstuffs from Algeria

A survey on 120 cereal samples (barley, maize, rice and wheat) from Algerian markets has been carried out to evaluate the presence of 15 mycotoxins (ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1 and B2, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, zearalenone, fusarenon X, citrinin, sterigmatocystin, enniatins A, A1, B and B1, and beauvericin). With this purpose, a QuEChERS-based extraction and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) were used. Analytical results showed that 78 cereal samples (65%) were contaminated with at least one toxin, while 50% were contaminated with three to nine mycotoxins. T-2 toxin, citrinin, beauvericin and deoxynivalenol were the most commonly found mycotoxins (frequency of 50%, 41.6%, 40.8% and 33.3%, respectively). Fumonisins (B1 + B2), enniatins B and B1, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone registered high concentrations (289-48878 µg/kg, 1.2-5288 µg/kg, 15-4569 µg/kg, 48-2055 µg/kg and 10.4-579 µg/kg, respectively). Furthermore, concentrations higher than those allowed by the European Union (EU) were observed in 21, 8 and 1 samples for fumonisins, zearalenone and deoxinivalenol, respectively. As a conclusion, the high levels of fumonisins (B1 + B2) in maize and deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and HT-2 + T-2 toxins in wheat, represent a health risk for the average adult consumer in Algeria. These results pointed out the necessity of a consistent control and the definition of maximum allowed levels for mycotoxins in Algerian foodstuffs.

Occurrence and preventive strategies to control mycotoxins in cereal-based food

Mycotoxins contamination in cereal-based food is ubiquitous according to systematic review of the scientific documentation of worldwide mycotoxin contamination in cereal and their products between 2008 and 2018, thus representing food safety issue especially in developing tropical countries. Food processing plays a vital role to prevent mycotoxin contamination in food. Therefore, it is with great urgency to develop strategies to inhibit fungi growth and mycotoxin production during food processing. This review begins by discussing physicochemical properties of five most common mycotoxins (aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone) found in cereal grains, regulation for mycotoxins in food, and their potential negative impact on human health. The fate of mycotoxins during major cereal-based food processing including milling, breadmaking, extrusion, malting, and brewing was then summarized. In the end, traditional mitigation strategies including physical and chemical and potential application of biocontrol agent and essential oil nanoemulsions that can be applied during food processing were discussed. It indicated that no single method is currently available to completely prevent mycotoxin contamination in cereal foods.

Exposure assessment of adult consumers in Serbia, Greece and Croatia to deoxynivalenol and zearalenone through consumption of major wheat-based products

The main objective of this research was to perform an exposure assessment of mycotoxin intake through consumption of wheat-based products in Serbia, Croatia, and Greece by estimating deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA) exposure from wheat. Food consumption survey of wheat-based products has been performed during 2017 in the three countries with at least 1000 interviewees per country. Values for the concentration of DON and ZEA were extracted from available research published in this decade. Finally, a Monte Carlo analysis of 100,000 simulations was performed to estimate the intake of DON and ZEA from consumption of wheat-based products. Results revealed that the estimated daily wheat-borne intake of DON of the adult population in Croatia was 0.121 μg/kg bw/day, followed by Greece with 0.181 μg/kg bw/day and Serbia with 0.262 μg/kg bw/day. This shows that 0.25% of Croatian, 1.19% of Greek and 3.96% of Serbian adult population is exposed to higher daily dietary intakes of DON than recommended. Estimated daily wheat-borne intake of ZEA was 0.017 μg/kg bw/day in Greece, 0.026 μg/kg bw/day in Croatia and 0.050 μg/kg bw/day in Serbia. Higher intake of ZEA is associated with 0.62% of the Greek population, followed by 0.95% Croatian and 2.25% of Serbian citizens. This type of research is helpful to assess accurately the risk by DON/ZEA intake associated with the consumption of wheat-based products by consumers in these three countries. Distributions of potential mycotoxin intakes were highly right-skewed.

Determination of Ochratoxin A (OTA), Ochratoxin B (OTB), T-2, and HT-2 Toxins in Wheat Grains, Wheat Flour, and Bread in Lebanon by LC-MS/MS

Cereals are prone to fungal infection during growth, harvesting, transportation, and/or storage. As a result, cereals such as wheat grains and wheat-derived products may be contaminated with mycotoxins leading to acute and chronic health exposure. The current study investigated the presence of the mycotoxins: ochratoxin A (OTA), ochratoxin B (OTB), T-2, and HT-2 toxins in samples of wheat grains (n = 50), wheat flour (n = 50), and bread (n = 37) from the main mills in Lebanon using LC-MS/MS. Accuracy ranged from 98-100%, recoveries from 93-105%, and intraday and interday precision were 5-7% and 9-12%, respectively. The tested wheat grains, wheat flour, and bread samples did not contain detectable levels of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and OTB. Four wheat flour samples (8% of flour samples) showed positive OTA levels ranging from 0.6-3.4 μg·kg-1 with an arithmetic mean of 1.9 ± 0.2 μg·kg-1. Only one sample contained an OTA concentration greater than the limit set by the European Union (3 μg·kg-1) for wheat-derived products. This study suggests that mycotoxin contamination of wheat grains, wheat flour, and bread in Lebanon is currently not a serious public health concern. However, surveillance strategies and monitoring programs must be routinely implemented to ensure minimal mycotoxin contamination of wheat-based products.

Mycotoxins in food and feed

Mycotoxins represent secondary fungal metabolites not essential to the normal growth and reproduction of a fungus, but capable of causing biochemical, physiological and pathological changes in many species. Harmful effects of mycotoxins observed in humans and animals include carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, immune toxicity, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, indigestion and so forth. These substances can be found in a variety of very important agricultural and food products, primarily dependent of product moisture content, and its water activity, relative air humidity, temperature, pH value, composition of the food matrix, the degree of its physical damage, and the presence of mold spores. Given that industrial processing has no significant effect on their reduction and in order to be able to vouch for the absence of mycotoxins, it is necessary to process foodstuffs under standardized and well-controlled conditions and to control each and every loop of the food production and storage chain. Preventative measures capable of reducing the contamination to the minimum must be in place and should be exercised by all means. In case that contamination does happen, methods for mycotoxin reduction or elimination should be implemented in dependence on a number of parameters such as properties of food or feed. Further research is needed in order to identify conditions that facilitate the growth of mycotoxin-producing fungi and develop effective preventative measures that can reduce contamination of food and feed as also to recognize possible synergistic effects of different mycotoxins in organism.

Contamination of Wheat Cultivated in Various Regions of Poland during 2017 and 2018 Agricultural Seasons with Selected Trichothecenes and Their Modified Forms

Cross-interaction of antibodies within the immunoaffinity columns used in this study facilitated the simultaneous determination of nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), their glucoside derivatives (NIV-3G, DON-3G), and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-AcDON) in wheat grain harvested in various regions of Poland. In Poland, 2018 was a warm, dry agricultural season, and hence, was relatively less favourable for cereal cultivation than 2017. Data on the natural occurrence of NIV-3G in wheat grain are among the first published in the literature. DON was the most frequently found mycotoxin in the tested samples; the percentage occurrence of DON-positive samples was 92% in 2017 and 61% in 2018. Moreover, DON concentrations were generally higher in 2017 samples (5.2⁻1670.7 µg/kg) than those in 2018 samples (range 5.0⁻461.7 µg/kg). A similar pattern was found for DON-3G. However, no statistically significant differences between the samples from the two agricultural seasons were observed for the other three mycotoxins that were analysed, and their concentrations were generally considerably lower. DON was strongly correlated with DON-3G (correlation coefficient r = 0.9558), while NIV was strongly correlated with NIV-3G (r = 0.9442). The percentage occurrence of NIV-3G- and DON-3G-positive samples was 14% in 2017 and 49% in 2018. The NIV-3G/NIV ratio was 5.9⁻35.7%, while the DON-3G/DON ratio range was 3.2⁻53.6%. In 2018, wheat samples from Southern Poland exhibited statistically significantly higher levels of DON than those from Northern Poland. The dry and hot summer of 2018 not only reduced wheat yields, but also limited development of Fusarium spp. Therefore, grain harvested that year was generally contaminated with relatively low levels of mycotoxins. Lower levels of DON were also accompanied by lesser amounts of DON-derivatives.

Occurrence of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in brewing barley grains from Brazil

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is an important cereal crop for food and represents one of the main ingredients in beer production. Considering the importance of barley and its derived products, the knowledge about the mycotoxin contamination in the barley production is essential in order to assess its safety. In this study, the levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) in brewing barley were determined using a LC-MS/MS method. A survey was conducted in 2015 to estimate the mycotoxin levels in these products (n = 76) from four crop regions in Brazil. The results showed high levels of DON and ZEN in the analyzed samples, with contamination levels of 94 and 73.6%, respectively. The mean levels of DON and ZEN ranged from 1700 to 7500 μg/kg and from 300 to 630 μg/kg, respectively. Barley samples from regions 1 and 2 presented higher levels of ZEN and DON, respectively, and those from region 4 presented lower levels of both. Co-occurrence of DON and ZEN was seen in the majority of the barley grain samples, and the mycotoxin content was above the maximum levels established by the Brazilian and European regulations.

Fusarium toxins in corn food products: a survey of the Serbian retail market

This paper presents data on the occurrence of Fusarium toxins - zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FUMs) B1 and B2 - in corn flours and corn flakes marketed in Serbia. A total of 71 samples were collected over 2013-2016 and analysed using HPLC with UV or fluorescence detection. In the case of corn flours, none of the samples taken in 2013 exhibited the presence of ZEA or DON, whereas 90% were positive for FUMs. In 2015, occurrence was very high: ZEA 93%, DON 86% and FUMs 100% (mean 43.3, 322.6 and 323.0 μg kg^-1, respectively), with 21% of the samples exceeding the maximum level for ZEA and 7% for DON and FUMs. In 2016, a lower occurrence was recorded in the case of ZEA (75%) and DON (38%), with drastically lower mean contamination levels (six- and 10-fold, respectively), while FUMs stayed at 97%, with twofold lower mean. The maximum level was exceeded only for ZEA (3%). The frequency of ZEA-DON-FB1 co-occurrence was 86% in 2015 and 25% in 2016. Regarding corn flakes, occurrence summarised for the study period was 87% ZEA, 73% FUMs and 40% DON. One sample (7%) exceeded the maximum levels for both ZEA and DON. Observed occurrence changes were in agreement with the climatic conditions during corn growing seasons preceding the market release of the processed products.

Deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in unprocessed cereals and soybean from different cultivation regions in Croatia

The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) in unprocessed cereals and soybean sampled in 2014 and 2015 from different fields located in Croatian regions. A total of 306 samples were analysed for DON and 415 samples for ZEN concentrations using quantitative ELISA methods. In 2014, DON and ZEN were determined in all samples in the mean concentrations of 1,461 ± 2,265 µg/kg and 656 ± 853 µg/kg, respectively, while in 2015 these means were 2,687 ± 2,731 µg/kg and 1,140 ± 1,630 µg/kg, respectively. The cultivation year significantly (p < 0.05) influenced mycotoxin concentrations, whereas the influence of cultivation region was seen with ZEN for all cereals except soybean, and not seen with DON at all. A higher contamination determined during 2015 could be explained by high to extreme humidity evidenced in the period of cereals' growth and harvesting.

Deoxynivalenol in wheat, maize, wheat flour and pasta: surveys in Hungary in 2008-2015

Among Fusarium mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most common contaminant in case of cereals and cereal-based foods in Hungary. In this study, Hungarian wheat (n = 305), maize (n = 108), wheat flour (n = 179) and pasta (n = 226) samples were analysed (N = 818). The samples were collected during 2008-2015 in Hungary. Applied methods of analysis were enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and liquid-chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer. Results were compared and evaluated with Hungarian weather data. Among cereal samples, in 2011, wheat was contaminated with DON (overall average ± standard deviation was 2159 ± 2818 µg kg^-1), which was above the maximum limit (ML). In case of wheat flour and pasta, no average values above ML were found during 2008-2015, but higher DON contamination could be observed in 2011 as well (wheat flour: 537 ± 573 µg kg^-1; pasta: 511 ± 175 µg kg^-1).

Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in flour: a survey of the Serbian retail market

This report presents data on the occurrence of aflatoxins (AF) and ochratoxin A in different types of flour marketed in Serbia. A total of 114 samples of wheat, buckwheat, rye, oat, barley, rice, millet and corn flour were collected in the period 2012-2016 and analysed using high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Among flours other than corn, AFB1 was quantified only in rice, while ochratoxin A (OTA) was found in 29% of the samples. In corn flours the percentage of positive samples varied greatly over the years: AFB1 7.1-80.0%, OTA 30.0-40.6%, with a co-occurrence of 7.1-34.4%. Overall 5.2% of flours other than corn and 10.7% of corn flours exceeded the maximum levels (MLs) for AFB1 and/or OTA. The highest recorded levels were 8.80 μg kg^-1 of AFB1 (corn) and 23.04 μg kg^-1 of OTA (rye). Overall mean contamination levels of corn flours were 0.53 μg kg^-1 of AFB1 and 0.46 μg kg^-1 of OTA.

Effect of xylanase and α-amylase on DON and its conjugates during the breadmaking process

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most frequently occurring mycotoxins in wheat crops worldwide and poses a risk to human and animal health due to its wide range of adverse effects. Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3-glucoside) is a DON plant conjugate that is widely found in cereal products. As DON accumulation in the field seems unavoidable, it is important to investigate all of the conditions that affect its stability during food processing. One of the most consumed cereal product around the world is bread, however the published information about DON stability in bread shows a large variability of results because a huge amount of factors affect DON and its modified forms. So, the aim of this research was to study the fate of DON and its modified forms through the breadmaking process with the addition of xylanase and α-amylase at different fermentation temperatures. Moreover, different α-amylase and xylanase concentrations were added to the dough to be fermented. To quantify DON and its derived forms in the samples, liquid chromatography with double mass spectrophotometer was used. DON was reduced during fermentation and baking; however, the reduction at each step was related to the fermentation temperature. The presence of α-amylase and xylanase caused increases in DON during fermentation and during early baking. DON-3-glucoside was slightly reduced after fermentation and was widely increased (>80%) after baking. Deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) increased during the breadmaking process. Breadmaking process can reduce DON concentration, however xylanase and α-amylase presence cause increases of DON.

Worldwide Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Cereals and Cereal-Derived Food Products: Public Health Perspectives of Their Co-occurrence

Cereal grains and their processed food products are frequently contaminated with mycotoxins. Among many, five major mycotoxins of aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone are of significant public health concern as they can cause adverse effects in humans. Being airborne or soilborne, the cosmopolitan nature of mycotoxigenic fungi contribute to the worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins. On the basis of the global occurrence data reported during the past 10 years, the incidences and maximum levels in raw cereal grains were 55% and 1642 μg/kg for aflatoxins, 29% and 1164 μg/kg for ochratoxin A, 61% and 71,121 μg/kg for fumonisins, 58% and 41,157 μg/kg, for deoxynivalenol, and 46% and 3049 μg/kg for zearalenone. The concentrations of mycotoxins tend to be lower in processed food products; the incidences varied depending on the individual mycotoxins, possibly due to the varying stability during processing and distribution of mycotoxins. It should be noted that more than one mycotoxin, produced by a single or several fungal species, may occur in various combinations in a given sample or food. Most studies reported additive or synergistic effects, suggesting that these mixtures may pose a significant threat to public health, particularly to infants and young children. Therefore, information on the co-occurrence of mycotoxins and their interactive toxicity is summarized in this paper.