One-step detection of ochratoxin A in cereal by dot immunoassay using a nanobody-alkaline phosphatase fusion protein

Combination of nanobody and peptidomimetic to develop novel immunoassay platforms for detecting ochratoxin A in cereals

Mimotope-based immunoassays for mycotoxins eliminate the requirement for large amounts of mycotoxin standards for the chemosynthesis of artificial antigens. Herein, the nanobody-based magnetic beads were used to screen the mimotope (peptidomimetic) of ochratoxin A (OTA) from the phage-displayed peptide library. The interactions between nanobody and the most sensitive Y4 peptidomimetic were investigated by computer-assisted simulation and compared with those between nanobody and OTA. By combining the nanobody, the phage-displayed Y4 and alkaline phosphatase-tagged Y4 fusion protein as the competing antigens, were used to develop two novel immunoassay platforms (PN-ELISA and APN-ELISA). The two methods are advantageous in the use of nontoxic substitutes of OTA and avoiding the use of monoclonal antibodies. Moreover, good analytical performances of both methods were obtained and confirmed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Therefore, the proposed novel methods based on nanobody and peptidomimetic were demonstrated to be highly reliable for detecting OTA in food.

Anti-Idiotypic Nanobody Alkaline Phosphatase Fusion Protein-Triggered On-Off-On Fluorescence Immunosensor for Aflatoxin in Cereals

Nanobodies (Nbs) are widely used in immunoassays with the advantages of small size and high stability. Here, the nanobody employed as the surrogate of aflatoxin antigen and the recognition mechanism of antiaflatoxin mAb with nanobody was studied by molecular modeling, which verified the feasibility of Nbs as antigen substitutes. On this basis, a nanobody-alkaline phosphatase fusion protein (Nb-AP) was constructed, and a highly sensitive "on-off-on" fluorescent immunosensor (OFO-FL immunosensor) based on the calcein/Ce3+ system was developed for aflatoxin quantification. Briefly, calcein serves as a signal transducer, and its fluorescence can be quenched after it is bound with Ce3+. In the presence of Nb-AP, AP catalyzed p-nitrophenyl phosphate to generate orthophosphate, which competes in binding with Ce3+, leading to fluorescence recovery. The method has a linearity range of 0.005-100 ng/mL, and the IC50 of the OFO-FL immunosensor was 0.063 ng/mL, which was 18-fold lower than that of conventional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The assay was successfully applied in food samples with a recovery of 88-121%.

Flexible SERS Biosensor Based on Core-Shell Nanotags for Sensitive and Multiple Detection of T1DM Biomarkers

Sensitive and multiple detection of the biomarkers of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is vital to the early diagnosis and clinical treatment of T1DM. Herein, we developed a SERS-based biosensor using polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membranes as a flexible support for the detection of glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies (GADA) and insulin autoantibodies (IAA). Two kinds of silver-gold core-shell nanotags embedded with Raman probes and attached with GADA or IAA antibodies were synthesized to capture the targets, enabling highly sensitive and highly selective detection of GADA and IAA. The embedded Raman probes sandwiched between silver and gold layers guaranteed spectral stability and reliability. Moreover, the utilization of two Raman probes enables simultaneous and multiplexing detection of both GADA and IAA, improving the detection accuracy for T1DM. The proposed SERS-based method has been proven feasible for clinical sample detection, demonstrating its great potential in sensitive, reliable, and rapid diagnosis of T1DM.

Production and Characterization of Biotinylated Anti-fenitrothion Nanobodies and Development of Sensitive Fluoroimmunoassay

A simple and sensitive fluoroimmunoassay (FIA) based on a heavy-chain antibody (VHH) for rapid detection of fenitrothion was developed. A VHH library was constructed from an immunized alpaca, and one clone recognizing fenitrothion (namely, VHHjd8) was achieved after careful biopanning. It was biotinylated by fusing with the Avi tag and biotin ligase to obtain a fusion protein (VHHjd8-BT), showing both binding capacity to fenitrothion and the streptavidin poly-horseradish peroxidase conjugate (SA-polyHRP). Based on a competitive assay format, the absorbance spectrum of oxidized 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine generated by SA-polyHRP overlapped the emission spectrum of carbon dots, which resulted in quenching of signals due to the inner-filter effect. The developed FIA showed an IC₅₀ value of 1.4 ng/mL and a limit of detection of 0.03 ng/mL, which exhibited 15-fold improvement compared with conventional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The recovery test of FIA was validated by standard GC-MS/MS, and the results showed good consistency, indicating that the assay is an ideal tool for rapid screening of fenitrothion in bulk food samples.

Fluonanobody-based nanosensor via fluorescence resonance energy transfer for ultrasensitive detection of ochratoxin A

Ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination in food is a serious threat to public health. There is an urgent need for development of rapid and sensitive methods for OTA detection, to minimize consumer exposure to OTA. In this study, we constructed two OTA-specific fluonanobodies (FluoNbs), with a nanobody fused at the carboxyl-terminal (SGFP-Nb) or the amino-terminal (Nb-SGFP) of superfolder green fluorescence protein. SGFP-Nb, which displayed better fluorescence performance, was selected as the tracer for OTA, to develop a FluoNb-based nanosensor (FN-Nanosens) via the fluorescence resonance energy transfer, where the SGFP-Nb served as the donor and the chemical conjugates of OTA-quantum dots served as the acceptor. After optimization, FN-Nanosens showed a limit of detection of 5 pg/mL, with a linear detection range of 5-5000 pg/mL. FN-Nanosens was found to be highly selective for OTA and showed good accuracy and repeatability in recovery experiments using cereals with various complex matrix environments. Moreover, the contents of OTA in real samples measured using FN-Nanosens correlated well with those from the liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Therefore, this work illustrated that the FluoNb is an ideal immunosensing tool and that FN-Nanosens is reliable for rapid detection of OTA in cereals with ultrahigh sensitivity.

Enzyme cascade-amplified immunoassay based on the nanobody-alkaline phosphatase fusion and MnO2 nanosheets for the detection of ochratoxin A in coffee

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a common food contaminant with multiple toxicities and thus rapid and accurate detection of OTA is indispensable to minimize the threat of OTA to public health. Herein a novel enzyme cascade-amplified immunoassay (ECAIA) based on the mutated nanobody–alkaline phosphatase fusion (mNb–AP) and MnO₂ nanosheets was established for detecting OTA in coffee. The detection principle is that the dual functional mNb–AP could specifically recognize OTA and dephosphorylate the ascorbic acid-2-phosphate (AAP) into ascorbic acid (AA), and the MnO₂ nanosheets mimicking the oxidase could be reduced by AA into Mn²⁺ and catalyze the 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethyl benzidine into blue oxidized product for quantification. Using the optimal conditions, the ECAIA could be finished within 132.5 min and shows a limit of detection of 3.38 ng mL⁻¹ (IC₁₀) with an IC₅₀ of 7.65 ng mL⁻¹ and a linear range (IC₂₀–IC₈₀) of 4.55–12.85 ng mL⁻¹. The ECAIA is highly selective for OTA. Good recovery rates (84.3–113%) with a relative standard deviation of 1.3–3% were obtained and confirmed by high performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector. The developed ECAIA was demonstrated to be a useful tool for the detection of OTA in coffee which provides a reference for the analysis of other toxic small molecules.

Enzyme cascade-amplified immunoassay using nanobody–alkaline phosphatase fusion and MnO₂ nanosheets for sensitive and selective detection of ochratoxin A in coffee.

Toxicant substitutes in immunological assays for mycotoxins detection: A mini review

Recurring mycotoxins contamination has posedaseriousthreatto food safety worldwide. Competitive immunoassays are widely used techniques for high-throughput mycotoxins detection in agricultural products and foods. However, the inevitable introduction of mycotoxin conjugates produced by chemical conjugation usually results in complicated by-products, large batch errors and threats to operators and environment. Biologically derived surrogates of mycotoxin conjugates or mycotoxin standards are renewable immunoreagents. They can serve the same function as the responding counterparts in the immunoassays. The substitute-based immunoassays exhibit satisfactory sensitivity, pose less health threats to operators and environment, and contribute to the standardization of immunoassays for mycotoxins. This review focuses on the current applications of substitute-based immunoassays, clarifies their underlying mechanisms and provides a careful comparison. Challenges and future prospects are discussed.

Development of an Ultrasensitive and Rapid Fluorescence Polarization Immunoassay for Ochratoxin A in Rice

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a known food contaminant that affects a wide range of food and agricultural products. The presence of this fungal metabolite in foods poses a threat to human health. Therefore, various detection and quantification methods have been developed to determine its presence in foods. Herein, we describe a rapid and ultrasensitive tracer-based fluorescence polarization immunoassay (FPIA) for the detection of OTA in rice samples. Four fluorescent tracers OTA-fluorescein thiocarbamoyl ethylenediamine (EDF), OTA-fluorescein thiocarbamoyl butane diamine (BDF), OTA-amino-methyl fluorescein (AMF), and OTA-fluorescein thiocarbamoyl hexame (HDF) with fluorescence polarization values (δFP = FPbind-FPfree) of 5, 100, 207, and 80 mP, respectively, were synthesized. The tracer with the highest δFP value (OTA-AMF) was selected and further optimized for the development of an ultrasensitive FPIA with a detection range of 0.03-0.78 ng/mL. A mean recovery of 70.0% to 110.0% was obtained from spiked rice samples with a relative standard deviation of equal to or less than 20%. Good correlations (r² = 0.9966) were observed between OTA levels in contaminated rice samples obtained by the FPIA method and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) as a reference method. The rapidity of the method was confirmed by analyzing ten rice samples that were analyzed within 25 min, on average. The sensitivity, accuracy, and rapidity of the method show that it is suitable for screening and quantification of OTA in food samples without the cumbersome pre-analytical steps required in other mycotoxin detection methods.

Application of phage-display developed antibody and antigen substitutes in immunoassays for small molecule contaminants analysis: A mini-review

Toxic small molecule contaminants (SMCs) residues in food threaten human health. Immunoassays are popular and simple techniques for SMCs analysis. However, immunoassays based on polyclonal antibodies, monoclonal antibodies and chemosynthetic antigens have some defects, such as complicated preparation of antibodies, risk of toxic haptens using for antigen chemosynthesis and so on. Phage-display technique has been proven to be an attractive alternative approach to producing antibody and antigen substitutes of SMCs, and opened up new realms for developing immunoassays of SMCs. These substitutes contain five types, including anti-idiotypic recombinant antibody (AIdA), anti-immune complex peptide (AIcP), anti-immune complex recombinant antibody (AIcA) and anti-SMC recombinant antibody (anti-SMC RAb). In this review, the principle of immunoassays based on the five types of substitutes, as well as their application and advantages are summarized and discussed.

Development of a horseradish peroxidase-nanobody fusion protein for visual detection of ochratoxin A by dot immunoassay

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a common cereal mycotoxin that seriously threatens food safety and public health. Herein a horseradish peroxidase-nanobody fusion protein (HRP-Nb) retaining antibody and enzyme activity was obtained after inclusion body denaturation and renaturation and enzyme reconstitution, which served both as the primary antibody and reporter enzyme and was applied to develop a membrane-based dot immunoassay (HN-DIA) for OTA visual detection. Based on the optimal experimental conditions, the HN-DIA could be finished in 10 min with a cut-off limit of 50 μg kg-1 in rice and oat samples by eye. The HN-DIA showed high selectivity for OTA and had good accuracy and reproducibility in the recovery experiments. Spiked sample analysis results of the HN-DIA and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) correlated well with each other. Therefore, the proposed HN-DIA has the potential for rapid screening of OTA and other small molecule pollutants in food and the environment by naked eye.

Ultrasensitive and rapid detection of ochratoxin A in agro-products by a nanobody-mediated FRET-based immunosensor

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a major concern for public health and the rapid detection of trace OTA in food is always a challenge. To minimize OTA exposure to consumers, a nanobody (Nb)-mediated förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based immunosensor using quantum dots (Nb-FRET immunosensor) was proposed for ultrasensitive, single-step and competitive detection of OTA in agro-products at present work. QDs of two sizes were covalently labeled with OTA and Nb, acting as the energy donor and acceptor, respectively. The free OTA competed with the donor to bind to acceptor, thus the FRET efficiency increased with the decrease of OTA concentration. The single-step assay could be finished in 5 min with a limit of detection of 5 pg/mL, which was attributed to the small size of Nb for shortening the effective FRET distance and improving the FRET efficiency. The Nb-FRET immunosensor exhibited high selectivity for OTA. Moreover, acceptable accuracy and precision were obtained in the analysis of cereals and confirmed by the liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Thus the developed Nb-FRET immunosensor was demonstrated to be an efficient tool for ultrasensitive and rapid detection of OTA in cereals and provides a detection model for other toxic small molecules in food and environment.

Nanobody-alkaline phosphatase fusion-mediated phosphate-triggered fluorescence immunoassay for ochratoxin a detection

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a kind of mycotoxin that seriously harms the health of humans and animals. In this study, a nanobody-alkaline phosphatase fusion-mediated phosphate-triggered fluorescence immunoassay (Nb-AP-mediated PT-FIA) was developed for detecting OTA. Based on the constructed phosphate-triggered fluorescence sensing system for Nb-AP and the optimal working conditions, the Nb-AP-mediated PT-FIA has a half maximal inhibition concentration (IC₅₀) of 0.46 ng/mL, a limit of detection (IC₁₀) of 0.12 ng/mL, and a linear range (IC_20-80) of 0.2-1.26 ng/mL, respectively. The recovery experiment indicated acceptable accuracy and precision of the Nb-AP-mediated PT-FIA, and the results were validated by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector. Thus this proposed method is applicable to sensitive, rapid, and low-cost detection of OTA and other toxic analytes with low molecular weight in food and environment.

Nanobody-based fluorescence resonance energy transfer immunoassay for noncompetitive and simultaneous detection of ochratoxin a and ochratoxin B

A noncompetitive and homogeneous fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) immunoassay was developed using a nanobody (Nb) for highly sensitive and simultaneous detection of ochratoxin A (OTA) and ochratoxin B (OTB). The promoted intrinsic fluorescence (λ_ex: 280 nm) of tryptophan residues (donor) in Nb can excite the fluorescence of OTA and OTB (acceptor) for detection (λ_em: 430 nm). Using optimal conditions, the limits of detection of the Nb-based FRET immunoassay were 0.06 and 0.12 ng/mL for OTA and OTB, respectively. Minimal cross reactivity was detected for several analogues of OTA and OTB as well as nonspecific proteins and antibodies. Acceptable accuracy and precision were obtained in the spike and recovery study, and the results correlated well with those by HPLC. These results demonstrated that the developed method could be a useful tool for noncompetitive, homogeneous, and simultaneous detection of OTA and OTB as well as other environmental analytes with similar fluorescence properties.

Noncompetitive Chromogenic Lateral-Flow Immunoassay for Simultaneous Detection of Microcystins and Nodularin

Cyanobacterial blooms cause local and global health issues by contaminating surface waters. Microcystins and nodularins are cyclic cyanobacterial peptide toxins comprising numerous natural variants. Most of them are potent hepatotoxins, tumor promoters, and at least microcystin-LR is possibly carcinogenic. In drinking water, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended the provisional guideline value of 1 µg/L for microcystin-LR. For water used for recreational activity, the guidance values for microcystin concentration varies mostly between 4-25 µg/L in different countries. Current immunoassays or lateral flow strips for microcystin/nodularin are based on indirect competitive method, which are generally more prone to sample interference and sometimes hard to interpret compared to two-site immunoassays. Simple, sensitive, and easy to interpret user-friendly methods for first line screening of microcystin/nodularin near water sources are needed for assessment of water quality and safety. We describe the development of a two-site sandwich format lateral-flow assay for the rapid detection of microcystins and nodularin-R. A unique antibody fragment capable of broadly recognizing immunocomplexes consisting of a capture antibody bound to microcystins/nodularin-R was used to develop the simple lateral flow immunoassay. The assay can visually detect the major hepatotoxins (microcystin-LR, -dmLR, -RR, -dmRR, -YR, -LY, -LF -LW, and nodularin-R) at and below the concentration of 4 µg/L. The signal is directly proportional to the concentration of the respective toxin, and the use of alkaline phosphatase activity offers a cost efficient alternative by eliminating the need of toxin conjugates or other labeling system. The easy to interpret assay has the potential to serve as a microcystins/nodularin screening tool for those involved in water quality monitoring such as municipal authorities, researchers, as well as general public concerned of bathing water quality.

Advances in biosensors for the detection of ochratoxin A: Bio-receptors, nanomaterials, and their applications

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a class of mycotoxin mainly produced by the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. OTA can cause various forms of kidney, liver and brain diseases in both humans and animals although trace amount of OTA is normally present in food. Therefore, development of fast and sensitive detection technique is essential for accurate diagnosis of OTA. Currently, the most commonly used detection methods are enzyme-linked immune sorbent assays (ELISA) and chromatographic techniques. These techniques are sensitive but time consuming, and require expensive equipment, highly trained operators, as well as extensive preparation steps. These drawbacks limit their wide application in OTA detection. On the contrary, biosensors hold a great potential for OTA detection at for both research and industry because they are less expensive, rapid, sensitive, specific, simple and portable. This paper aims to provide an extensive overview on biosensors for OTA detection by highlighting the main biosensing recognition elements for OTA, the most commonly used nanomaterials for fabricating the sensing interface, and their applications in different read-out types of biosensors. Current challenges and future perspectives are discussed as well.

Exonuclease I-assisted fluorescent method for ochratoxin A detection using iron-doped porous carbon, nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots, and double magnetic separation

In this paper, a fluorescent method was developed for ochratoxin A (OTA) detection that uses iron-doped porous carbon (MPC) and aptamer-functionalized nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots (NGQDs-Apt) as probes. In this method, the adsorbance of the NGQDs-Apt on the MPC due to a π-π interaction between the aptamer and the MPC results in the quenching of the fluorescence of the NGQDs-Apt. However, since OTA interacts strongly with the aptamer, the presence of OTA leads to the detachment of the NGQDs-Apt from the MPC, resulting in the resumption of fluorescence from the NGQDs-Apt. When exonuclease I (Exo I) is also added to the solution, this exonuclease specifically digests the aptamer, leading to the release of the OTA back into the solution. This free OTA then interacts with another MPC-NGQDs-Apt system, inducing the release of more NGQDs into the solution, which enhances the fluorescent intensity compared to that of the system with no Exo I. Utilizing this behavior of OTA in the presence of NGQDs-Apt, it was possible to detect concentrations of OTA ranging from 10 to 5000 nM, with a limit of detection of 2.28 nM. Our method was tested by applying it to the detection of OTA in wheat and corn samples. This method has four advantages: (1) the magnetic porous carbon is easy to prepare, its porosity enhances its loading capacity for NGQDs, it highly efficiently quenches the fluorescence of the NGQDs, and its magnetic properties facilitate the separation of the MPC from other species in solution; (2) applying double magnetic separation decreases the background signal; (3) Exo I digests the free aptamer effectively, which allows the resulting free OTA to induce the release of more NGQDs-Apt, ultimately enhancing the fluorescent signal; and (4) the proposed method presented high sensitivity and a wide linear detection range. This method may prove helpful in food safety analysis and new biosensor development (achieved by using different aptamer sequences to that used in the present work). Graphical abstract Exonuclease I (Exo I)-assisted fluorescent method for ochratoxin A (OTA) detection using magnetic porous carbon (MPC), nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots (NGQDs), and double magnetic separation.

Nanobody-Alkaline Phosphatase Fusion Protein-Based Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for One-Step Detection of Ochratoxin A in Rice

Ochratoxin A (OTA) has become one a focus of public concern because of its multiple toxic effects and widespread contamination. To monitor OTA in rice, a sensitive, selective, and one-step enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using a nanobody-alkaline phosphatase fusion protein (Nb28-AP) was developed. The Nb28-AP was produced by auto-induction expression and retained an intact antigen-binding capacity and enzymatic activity. It exhibited high thermal stability and organic solvent tolerance. Under the optimal conditions, the developed assay for OTA could be finished in 20 min with a half maximal inhibitory concentration of 0.57 ng mL^-1 and a limit of detection of 0.059 ng mL^-1, which was 1.1 times and 2.7 times lower than that of the unfused Nb28-based ELISA. The Nb28-AP exhibited a low cross-reactivity (CR) with ochratoxin B (0.92%) and ochratoxin C (6.2%), and an ignorable CR (<0.10%) with other mycotoxins. The developed Nb-AP-based one-step ELISA was validated and compared with a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. The results show the reliability of Nb-AP-based one-step ELISA for the detection of OTA in rice.

Development of a Highly Sensitive Direct Competitive Fluorescence Enzyme Immunoassay Based on a Nanobody-Alkaline Phosphatase Fusion Protein for Detection of 3-Phenoxybenzoic Acid in Urine

3-Phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) is a human urinary metabolite of many pyrethroid insecticides and can be used as a biomarker to monitor human exposure to these pesticides. A rapid and sensitive direct competitive fluorescence enzyme immunoassay (dc-FEIA) for detecting 3-PBA on the basis of a nanobody (Nb)-alkaline phosphatase (AP) fusion protein was developed. The anti-3-PBA Nb-AP fusion protein was expressed and purified. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) and linear range of dc-FEIA were 0.082 and 0.015-0.447 ng/mL, respectively, with a detection limit of 0.011 ng/mL. The IC₅₀ of dc-FEIA was improved by nearly ten times compared with those of one-step and three-step direct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (dc-ELISA). Spiked urine samples were detected by both dc-FEIA and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and the results showed good consistency between the two analysis methods, indicating the reliability of dc-FEIA based on the Nb-AP fusion protein for detecting 3-PBA in urine.

Development of a Nanobody-AviTag Fusion Protein and Its Application in a Streptavidin-Biotin-Amplified Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Ochratoxin A in Cereal

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a common food contaminant that threatens consumers' safety and health. A sensitive and selective biotin-streptavidin-amplified enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (BA-ELISA) for OTA using a nanobody-AviTag fusion protein (Nb-AviTag) was developed in this study. The prokaryotic expression vector Nb28-AviTag-pAC6 for Nb-AviTag was constructed, followed by transformation to the AVB101 cells for antibody expression and in vivo biotinylation. The purified Nb28-AviTag was used to establish the BA-ELISA and the procedures for this Nb-AviTag-based BA-ELISA were optimized. The Nb-AviTag-based BA-ELISA exhibited the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of 0.14 ng mL^-1 and the limit of detection (LOD = IC₁₀) of 0.028 ng mL^-1 for OTA basing on the optimized experiment parameters. The assay sensitivity was improved 4.6 times and 4.3 times compared to Nb-based ELISA, respectively. This method had LODs of 1.4 μg kg^-1 in barley, 0.56 μg kg^-1 in oats, and 0.84 μg kg^-1 in rice for OTA. The average recovery percent was in a range of 84-137%, and the relative standard derivation percent ranged from 0.64% to 7.8%. The content of OTA in contaminated cereal samples was determined by both the developed Nb-AviTag-based method and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The results demonstrated that the Nb-AviTag was a robust and promising bioreceptor in highly sensitive detection of OTA and other low molecular weight compounds using BA system.