Isotopic characterization of vanillin ex glucose by GC-IRMS - New challenge for natural vanilla flavour authentication?

Production, extraction, and authentication of natural and non-natural vanillin. A comprehensive review and economic future biotechnology perspectives

Vanillin is a chief flavoring agent owing to its immense popularity in food, beverage, and pharmaceutical industries. This study holistically dissects vanillin quality control approaches that include conventional, hyphenated, and sensory analyses. Markers to differentiate between authentic, synthetic, and adulterated vanilla are highlighted using hyphenated techniques. Carbon isotope ratio range appears of potential to identify vanillin originating from biosynthetic (C3 plant), synthetic (petroleum) sources, or vanilla pods. Novel extraction methods typically provide greater selectivity, higher purity, shorter extraction times, and ecofriendly attributes compared to conventional methods. Best methods include supercritical fluids (SCF) or natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) that promoted higher yield of vanillin. The review also highlights the promising avenue of biotransformation, the safest technique for the production of vanilla flavor components, tackling current challenges and emphasizing its potential to meet the market needs for authenticated and high-quality yields of vanillin.

From Waste to Value: Recent Insights into Producing Vanillin from Lignin

Vanillin, one of the most widely used and appreciated flavoring agents worldwide, is the main constituent of vanilla bean extract, obtained from the seed pods of various members belonging to the Orchidaceae family. Due to the great demand in the food confectionery industry, as well as in the perfume industry, medicine, and more, the majority of vanillin used today is produced synthetically, and only less than one percent of the world's vanilla flavoring market comes directly from the traditional natural sources. The increasing global demand for vanillin requires alternative and overall sustainable new production methods, and the recovery from biobased polymers, like lignin, is an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical synthesis. The present review provides firstly an overview of the different types of vanillin, followed by a description of the main differences between natural and synthetic vanillin, their preparation, the market of interest, and the authentication issues and the related analytical techniques. Then, the review explores the real potentialities of lignin for vanillin production, presenting firstly the well-assessed classical methods and moving towards the most recent promising approaches through chemical, biotechnological and photocatalytic methodologies, together with the challenges and the principal issues associated with each technique.

Comparison of Carbon Isotope Ratio Measurement of the Vanillin Methoxy Group by GC-IRMS and 13C-qNMR

Site-specific carbon isotope ratio measurements by quantitative 13C NMR (13C-qNMR), Orbitrap-MS, and GC-IRMS offer a new dimension to conventional bulk carbon isotope ratio measurements used in food provenance, forensics, and a number of other applications. While the site-specific measurements of carbon isotope ratios in vanillin by 13C-qNMR or Orbitrap-MS are powerful new tools in food analysis, there are a limited number of studies regarding the validity of these measurement results. Here we present carbon site-specific measurements of vanillin by GC-IRMS and 13C-qNMR for methoxy carbon. Carbon isotope delta (δ13C) values obtained by these different measurement approaches demonstrate remarkable agreement; in five vanillin samples whose bulk δ13C values ranged from -31‰ to -26‰, their δ13C values of the methoxy carbon ranged from -62.4‰ to -30.6‰, yet the difference between the results of the two analytical approaches was within ±0.6‰. While the GC-IRMS approach afforded up to 9-fold lower uncertainties and required 100-fold less sample compared to the 13C-qNMR, the 13C-qNMR is able to assign δ13C values to all carbon atoms in the molecule, not just the cleavable methoxy group.

Carbon and Oxygen Isotopic Ratio Analysis by FT ICR MS for Natural Vanillin Authentication

Vanillin is the main component of vanilla flavor and is naturally produced from an orchid. However, due to the high cost and time-intensive nature of cultivating natural vanilla pods, most of the vanillin is mainly artificially manufactured. Existing methodologies, such as isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) and site-specific natural isotopic fractionation by nuclear magnetic resonance (SNIF-NMR), are employed to differentiate natural vanillin from other sources based on carbon and hydrogen isotope measurements. Nevertheless, these methods have limitations, as the carbon isotopic ratio can be counterfeited by adding commercially available enriched vanillin. For this research, we purified 1 mg of vanillin from pods from various geographical and botanical sources. We developed a novel method for analyzing 13C/12C and 18O/16O isotopic ratios of vanillin using direct injection analysis coupled with Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS). This innovative approach enables the examination of bulk vanillin carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios, as well as specific molecular fragments. By analyzing a characteristic vanillin fragment that provides site-specific 18O/16O isotopic ratio data, we achieved superior clustering and discrimination of samples based on their botanical source and geographical origin. Our proposed method holds significant potential for vanillin authentication and can be performed using a mere 20 μg of pure vanillin in just 10 min of analysis time. Subsequent research should focus on acquiring additional vanillin samples from diverse botanical, geographical, and biosynthetic origins while exploring various isotopic ratios to further enhance the reproducibility and reliability of this methodology.

Stable isotope characterization of tobacco products: A determination of synthetic or natural nicotine authenticity

RATIONALE

"Tobacco-free" or synthetic nicotine products have appeared in some markets, increasing potential health risks and regulatory compliance challenges. Currently, there are few reliable methods for the determination of authenticity of natural and synthetic nicotine. Analytical techniques based on stable isotopes have broad application prospects in the traceability and identification of agricultural products.

METHODS

Tobacco leaves from four main tobacco production regions in China and different types of tobacco products were extracted with n-hexane and 5% sodium hydroxide to obtain nicotine extracts. Subsequent stable isotope mass spectrometry was performed by analyzing δ2 H, δ13 C, and δ15 N values of nicotine.

RESULTS

Firstly, results from a batch of 233 samples indicated stable isotopes were closely related to climate and geographical locations and provide a basis for a determination of the origin of tobacco leaves. In addition, the δ2 H values had significant differences between natural and synthetic nicotine and the results indicate a δ2 H value of -163.0‰ could be the threshold for assessing synthetic and natural nicotine. Finally, a total of 239 results further validated the δ2 H value as a metric for source authentication of commercial tobacco products.

CONCLUSIONS

Synthetic (S)-(-)-nicotine could be accurately and quickly identified using the method developed by measuring δ2 H values in a qualitative manner. To our knowledge, this is the first time a stable isotope mass spectrometry technique has been used for distinguishing the source of nicotine. This technique will aid in the accurate identification, labelling, and regulation of synthetic nicotine-based tobacco products.

Site-specific carbon isotope measurements of vanillin reference materials by nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry

Vanillin, one of the world's most popular flavor used in food and pharmaceutical industries, is extracted from vanilla beans or obtained (bio)-synthetically. The price of natural vanillin is considerably higher than that of its synthetic alternative which leads increasingly to counterfeit vanillin. Here, we describe the workflow of combining carbon isotope ratio combustion mass spectrometry with quantitative carbon nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry (13C-qNMR) to obtain carbon isotope measurements traceable to the Vienna Peedee Belemnite (VPDB) with 0.7‰ combined standard uncertainty (or expanded uncertainty of 1.4‰ at 95% confidence level). We perform these measurements on qualified Bruker 400 MHz instruments to certify site-specific carbon isotope delta values in two vanillin materials, VANA-1 and VANB-1, believed to be the first intramolecular isotopic certified reference material (CRMs).

Prediction method for determining the carbon stable isotopic composition of berry sugars in the original must of Chardonnay wines

The carbon stable isotopic composition, as indicated by the δ¹³C value, of wine ethanol is inherited from berry sugars, but little is known about the variation in sugar δ¹³C values of Japanese grapes relative to overseas grapes. This study found a large variation in sugar δ¹³C values of Chardonnay grapes grown in Japan (-27.2 ± 0.9‰, mean ± standard deviation, n = 33), with sugar δ¹³C values depending on the δ¹³C values and content of monosaccharides. After complete fermentation, the carbon isotope discrimination between berry sugars and wine ethanol was 1.5 ± 0.1‰. Ethanol δ¹³C values and carbon isotope discrimination enabled prediction of sugar δ¹³C values in the original must. Imported wines had higher sugar δ¹³C values than those of wines made from Japanese grapes, suggesting drier overseas viticulture conditions. The determination of sugar δ¹³C values in grape berries provides valuable information for viticulture and wine authentication.

Application of 13C Quantitative NMR Spectroscopy to Isotopic Analyses for Vanillin Authentication Source

The carbon stable isotope ratio (δ¹³C) is a valuable chemical parameter in the investigation of the geographic origin, quality, and authenticity of foods. The aim of this study is the evaluation of the feasibility of ¹³C-NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) spectroscopy to determine the carbon stable isotope ratio, at natural abundance, of small organic molecules, such as vanillin, without the use of IRMS (Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry). The determination of vanillin origin is an active task of research, and differentiating between its natural and artificial forms is important to guarantee the quality of food products. To reach our goal, nine vanillin samples were analyzed using both ¹³C quantitative NMR spectroscopy (under optimized experimental conditions) and IRMS, and the obtained δ¹³C values were compared using statistical analysis (linear regression, Bland–Altman plot, and ANOVA (analysis of variance)). The results of our study show that ¹³C-NMR spectroscopy can be used as a valuable alternative methodology to determine the bulk carbon isotope ratio and to identify the origin of vanillin. This makes it attractive for the analysis in the same experiment of site-specific and total isotope effects for testing authenticity, quality, and typicality of food samples. Moreover, the improvement of NMR spectroscopy makes it possible to avoid the influence of additives on carbon stable isotope ratio analysis and to clearly identify fraud and falsification in commercial samples.

Unveiling the Mechanism for the Photochemistry and Photodegradation of Vanillin

The photolysis of vanillin produces a short-lived triplet state where its lifetime is controlled by efficient self-quenching (k_SQ ~ 2 × 10⁹  m^-1  s^-1 ) which also generates radicals. Free radical reactions, including vanillin dimer formation, are responsible for the degradation of vanillin and is accompanied by yellowing of the acetonitrile solutions. Laser flash photolysis studies reveal a triplet absorbing at 390 nm, readily quenched by naphthalenes, conjugated dienes and oxygen. Vanillin is also a good singlet oxygen sensitizer as revealed by its characteristic NIR emission at 1270 nm.

New Insights on Volatile Components of Vanilla planifolia Cultivated in Taiwan

Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) is a precious natural flavoring that is commonly used throughout the world. In the past, all vanilla used in Taiwan was imported; however, recent breakthroughs in cultivation and processing technology have allowed Taiwan to produce its own supply of vanilla. In this study, headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) combined with GC-FID and GC-MS was used to analyze the volatile components of vanilla from different origins produced in Taiwan under different cultivation and processing conditions. The results of our study revealed that when comparing different harvest maturities, the composition diversity and total volatile content were both higher when the pods were matured for more than 38 weeks. When comparing different killing conditions, we observed that the highest vanillin percentage was present after vanilla pods were killed three times in 65 °C treatments for 1 min each. From the experiment examining the addition of different strains, the PCA results revealed that the volatiles of vanilla that was processed with Dekkera bruxellensis and Bacillus subtilis was clearly distinguished from which obtained by processing with the other strains. Vanilla processed with B. subtilis contained 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, and this was not detected in other vanillas. Finally, when comparing the vanillin percentage from seven different regions in Taiwan, vanilla percentage from Taitung and Taoyuan Longtan were the highest.

Vanillin biosynthesis from sucrose ex-sugarcane: authentication of an alternative vanillin source through stable isotope data analysis

As one of the largest volume flavor ingredients, vanillin remains an attractive target for development of a cost-effective and sustainable process to manufacture. Presented here is newly available data on the production of vanillin via fermentation in an engineered strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae grown on sucrose ex-sugarcane. The use of the C4 plant source of carbohydrate resulted in a δ¹³C mean stable isotope ratio of -14.43 ‰ (SD = 0.24) relative to the V-PDB standard and a δ²H mean stable isotope ratio of -122.8 ‰ (SD = 2.9) relative to the SMOW standard by IRMS. The abundance of ¹⁴C in the fermentation derived vanillin averaged 14.01 dpm/gC (SD = 0.09) by AMS measurement. These data are compared to historical data collected on vanillin derived from a number of sources to provide a more holistic view on vanillin bulk isotope data based on its method of manufacture.