Bioremediation of organophosphorus pesticides in contaminated foodstuffs using probiotics

Biodegradation of chemical contamination by lactic acid bacteria: A biological tool for food safety

Chemical pollutants such as mycotoxins and pesticides exert harmful effects on human health such as inflammation, oxidative stress, and cancer. Several strategies were applied for food decontamination, including physicochemical and biological strategies. The present review comprehensively discussed the recent efforts related to the biodegradation of eight food chemical contaminants, including mycotoxins, acrylamide, biogenic amines, N-nitrosamines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, bisphenol A, pesticides, and heavy metals by lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Biological detoxification by LAB such as Lactobacillus is a promising approach to remove the risks related to the presence of chemical and environmental pollutants in foodstuffs. It is a safe, efficient, environmentally friendly, and low-cost strategy to remove hazardous compounds. LAB can directly decrease these chemical pollutants by degradation or adsorption. Also, it can indirectly reduce the content of these pollutants by reducing their precursors. Hence, LAB can contribute to reducing chemical pollutants in contaminated foods and enhance food safety.

Recent advances in ratiometric electrochemical sensors for food analysis

Ratiometric electrochemical sensors are renowned for their dual-signal processing capabilities, enabling automatic correction of background noise and interferences through built-in calibration, thus providing more accurate and reproducible measurements. This characteristic makes them highly promising for food analysis. This review comprehensively summarizes and discusses the latest advancements in ratiometric electrochemical sensors and their applications in food analysis, emphasizing their design strategies, detection capabilities, and practical uses. Initially, we explore the construction and design strategies of these sensors. We then review the detection of various food-related analytes, including nutrients, additives, metal ions, pharmaceutical and pesticide residues, biotoxins, and pathogens. The review also briefly explores the challenges faced by ratiometric electrochemical sensors in food testing and potential future directions for development. It aims to provide researchers with a clear introduction and serve as a reference for the design and application of new, efficient ratiometric electrochemical sensors in food analysis.

Postbiotics as Potential Detoxification Tools for Mitigation of Pesticides

Pesticides possess a pivotal role in the realm of agriculture and food manufacturing, as they effectively manage the proliferation of weeds, insects, plant pathogens, and microbial contaminations. They are valuable in some ways, but if misused, they can cause health issues like cancer, reproductive toxicity, neurological illnesses, and endocrine system disturbances. In this regard, practical methods for reducing pesticide residue in food should be used. For reducing pesticide residue in food processing, some strategies have been suggested. Recent research has been done on detoxification processes, including microorganisms like probiotics and their metabolites. The term "postbiotics" describes soluble substances, such as peptides, enzymes, teichoic acids, muropeptides generated from peptidoglycans, polysaccharides, proteins, and organic acids that are secreted by living bacteria or released after bacterial lysis. Due to their distinct chemical makeup, safe dosage guidelines, lengthy shelf lives, and presence of various signaling molecules that may have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesogenic, immunomodulatory, anti-hypertensive, and immunomodulatory effects, these postbiotics have attracted interest. They also can detoxify heavy metals, mycotoxins, and pesticides. Hydrolytic enzymes have been proposed as a potential mechanism for pesticide degradation. Postbiotics can also reduce reactive oxygen species production, enhance gastrointestinal barrier function, reduce inflammation, and modulate host xenobiotic metabolism. This review highlights pesticide residues in food products, definitions and safety aspect of postbiotics, as well as their biological role in detoxification of pesticides and the protective role of these compounds against the adverse effects of pesticides.

Highly conductive Ti3C2 MXene-supported CoAl-layered double hydroxide nanosheets for ultrasensitive electrochemical detection of organophosphate pesticide fenitrothion

A novel electrochemical method is presented for ultrasensitive detection of the organophosphate pesticide (OPP) fenitrothion by using Ti3C2 MXene/CoAl-LDH nanocomposite as the electrode modifier. The Ti3C2 MXene/CoAl-LDH nanocomposite is synthesized by growing CoAl-LDH in situ on MXene nanosheets. The combination of two ultrathin 2D materials provides more active sites, larger specific surface area, superior adsorption properties, and better electrical conductivity, which leads to rapid electron-transfer and mass-transfer between the substrate electrode and analytes when it is acted as the electrochemical sensing material. In addition, through the chelation of phosphate groups with the Ti defect sites enriched in MXene, OPP is adsorbed on the electrode. Consequently, the corresponding modified electrode gives rise to a wide linear response range of 0.03 ~ 120 μmol/L for the differential pulse voltammetry detection of fenitrothion with a low detection limit of 5.8 nmol/L (3σ). The method offers good repeatability, stability, selectivity, and practicability for real samples. This strategy provides a reference platform for the electrochemical monitoring of trace OPPs residue by using MXene/LDH-based nanocomposites.

Evaluation of suitability and biodegradability of the organophosphate insecticides to mitigate insecticide pollution in onion farming

Organophosphates constitute a major class of pesticides widely employed in agriculture to manage insect pests. Their toxicity is attributed to their ability to inhibit the functioning of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an essential enzyme for normal nerve transmission. Organophosphates, especially chlorpyrifos, have been a key component of the integrated pest management (IPM) in onions, effectively controlling onion maggot Delia antiqua, a severe pest of onions. However, the growing concerns over the use of this insecticide on human health and the environment compelled the need for an alternative organophosphate and a potential microbial agent for bioremediation to mitigate organophosphate pesticide pollution. In the present study, chloropyrifos along with five other organophosphate insecticides, phosmet, primiphos-methyl, isofenphos, iodofenphos and tribuphos, were screened against the target protein AChE of D. antiqua using molecular modeling and docking techniques. The results revealed that iodofenphos showed the best interaction, while tribuphos had the lowest interaction with the AChE based on comparative binding energy values. Further, protein-protein interaction analysis conducted using the STRING database and Cytoscap software revealed that AChE is linked with a network of 10 different proteins, suggesting that the function of AChE is disrupted through interaction with insecticides, potentially leading to disruption within the network of associated proteins. Additionally, an in silico study was conducted to predict the binding efficiency of two organophosphate degrading enzymes, organophosphohydrolase (OpdA) from Agrobacterium radiobacter and Trichoderma harzianum paraoxonase 1 like (ThPON1-like) protein from Trichoderma harzianum, with the selected insecticides. The analysis revealed their potential to degrade the pesticides, offering a promising alternative before going for cumbersome onsite remediation.

Role of Lactic Acid Bacteria in Insecticide Residue Degradation

Lactic acid bacteria are gaining global attention, especially due to their role as a probiotic. They are increasingly being used as a flavoring agent and food preservative. Besides their role in food processing, lactic acid bacteria also have a significant role in degrading insecticide residues in the environment. This review paper highlights the importance of lactic acid bacteria in degrading insecticide residues of various types, such as organochlorines, organophosphorus, synthetic pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, and diamides. The paper discusses the mechanisms employed by lactic acid bacteria to degrade these insecticides, as well as their potential applications in bioremediation. The key enzymes produced by lactic acid bacteria, such as phosphatase and esterase, play a vital role in breaking down insecticide molecules. Furthermore, the paper discusses the challenges and future directions in this field. However, more research is needed to optimize the utilization of lactic acid bacteria in insecticide residue degradation and to develop practical strategies for their implementation in real-world scenarios.

Purple acid phosphatase promoted hydrolysis of organophosphate pesticides in microalgae

When organophosphate pesticides (OPs) are not used and handled in accordance with the current rules and standards, it results in serious threats to the aquatic environment and human health. Phaeodactylum tricornutum is a prospective microalgae-based system for pollutant removal and carbon sequestration. Genetically engineered P. tricornutum, designated as the OE line (endogenously expressing purple acid phosphatase 1 [PAP1]), can utilize organic phosphorus for cellular metabolism. However, the competencies and mechanisms of the microalgae-based system (namely the OE line of P. tricornutum) for metabolizing OPs remain to be addressed. In this study, the OE line exhibited the effective biodegradation competencies of 72.12% and 68.2% for 30 mg L-1 of dichlorvos and 50 mg L-1 of glyphosate, accompanied by synergistic accumulations of biomass (0.91 and 0.95 g L-1) and lipids (32.71% and 32.08%), respectively. Furthermore, the biodiesel properties of the lipids from the OE line manifested a high potential as an alternative feedstock for microalgae-based biofuel production. A plausible mechanism of OPs biodegraded by overexpressed PAP1 is that sufficient inorganic P for adenosine triphosphate and concurrent carbon flux for the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate biosynthesis, which improved the OP tolerance and biodegradation competencies by regulating the antioxidant system, delaying programmed cell death and accumulating lipids via the upregulation of related genes. To sum up, this study demonstrates a potential strategy using a genetically engineered strain of P. tricornutum to remove high concentrations of OPs with the simultaneous production of biomass and biofuels, which might provide novel insights for microalgae-based pollutant biodegradation.

Distribution of organophosphorus pesticides and its potential connection with probiotics in sediments of a shallow freshwater lake

Despite the serious health threats due to wide use of organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) have been experimentally claimed to be remediated by probiotic microorganisms in various food and organism models, the interactions between OPPs and probiotics in the natural wetland ecosystem was rarely investigated. This study delves into the spatial and temporal distribution, contamination levels of OPPs in the Baiyangdian region, the diversity of probiotic communities in varying environmental contexts, and the potential connection with OPPs on these probiotics. In typical shallow lake wetland ecosystem-Baiyangdian lake in north China, eight OPPs were identified in the lake sediments, even though their detection rates were generally low. Malathion exhibited the highest average content among these pesticides (9.51 ng/g), followed by fenitrothion (6.70 ng/g). Conversely, chlorpyrifos had the lowest detection rate at only 2.14%. The region near Nanliu Zhuang (F10), significantly influenced by human activities, displayed the highest concentration of total OPPs (136.82 ng/g). A total of 145 probiotic species spanning 78 genera were identified in Baiyangdian sediments. Our analysis underscores the relations of environmental factors such as phosphatase activity, pH, and electrical conductivity (EC) with probiotic community. Notably, several high-abundance probiotics including Pseudomonas chlororaphis, Clostridium sp., Lactobacillus fermentum, and Pseudomonas putida, etc., which were reported to exhibit significant potential for the degradation of OPPs, showed strongly correlations with OPPs in the Baiyangdian lake sediments. The outcomes of this research offer valuable insights into the spatiotemporal dynamics of OPPs in natural large lake wetland and the probability of their in-situ residue bioremediation through the phosphatase pathway mediated by probiotic such as Lactic acid bacteria in soils/sediments contaminated with OPPs.

Phytochemicals, Probiotics, Recombinant Proteins: Enzymatic Remedies to Pesticide Poisonings in Bees

The ongoing global decline of bees threatens biodiversity and food safety as both wild plants and crops rely on bee pollination to produce viable progeny or high-quality products in high yields. Pesticide exposure is a major driving force for the decline, yet pesticide use remains unreconciled with bee conservation since studies demonstrate that bees continue to be heavily exposed to and threatened by pesticides in crops and natural habitats. Pharmaceutical methods, including the administration of phytochemicals, probiotics (beneficial bacteria), and recombinant proteins (enzymes) with detoxification functions, show promise as potential solutions to mitigate pesticide poisonings. We discuss how these new methods can be appropriately developed and applied in agriculture from bee biology and ecotoxicology perspectives. As countless phytochemicals, probiotics, and recombinant proteins exist, this Perspective will provide suggestive guidance to accelerate the development of new techniques by directing research and resources toward promising candidates. Furthermore, we discuss practical limitations of the new methods mentioned above in realistic field applications and propose recommendations to overcome these limitations. This Perspective builds a framework to allow researchers to use new detoxification techniques more efficiently in order to mitigate the harmful impacts of pesticides on bees.

Probiotic bacteria alleviate chlorpyrifos-induced rat testicular and renal toxicity: A possible mechanism based on antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity

Chlorpyrifos (CPF) has caused many potential toxicities in nontarget organisms. Fewer studies have been conducted on the effects of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in mitigating tissue damage induced by CPF in vivo. Therefore, we investigated CPF renal and testicular toxicity and the alleviating effect of probiotic lactobacilli, based on antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, on induced toxicity in an animal model. Biochemical assays showed that CPF induced oxidative stress along with a change in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity in a tissue-dependent manner. After treatment with CPF, testicular and renal levels of TNF-α were significantly reduced and enhanced, respectively, compared to the control group. The probiotic treatment restored renal and testicular TNF-α levels and modulated and blocked the increasing effect of CPF on renal IL-1β levels. Testicular IL-1β levels in the probiotic-treated and CPF groups demonstrated similar values. Exposure to CPF significantly induced renal histopathological damage that, of course, was completely inhibited by treatment with Lactobacillus casei and the LAB mixture. In summary, CPF showed significant toxicological effects on oxidative stress and the inflammation rate in CPF-exposed rats. Therefore, supplementation with probiotic bacteria may alleviate CPF renal toxicity and mitigate its oxidative stress and inflammation effects.

Ginseng Stem-and-Leaf Saponins Mitigate Chlorpyrifos-Evoked Intestinal Toxicity In Vivo and In Vitro: Oxidative Stress, Inflammatory Response and Apoptosis

In recent years, the phenomenon of acute poisoning and organ damage caused by organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) has been a frequent occurrence. Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is one of the most widely used organophosphorus pesticides. The main active components of ginseng stems and leaves are total ginseng stem-and-leaf saponins (GSLSs), which have various biological effects, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-tumor activities. We speculate that these could have great potential in the treatment of severe diseases and the relief of organophosphorus-pesticide-induced side effects; however, their mechanism of action is still unknown. At present, our work aims to evaluate the effects of GSLSs on the antioxidation of CPF in vivo and in vitro and their potential pharmacological mechanisms. Mice treated with CPF (5 mg/kg) showed severe intestinal mucosal injury, an elevated diamine oxidase (DAO) index, the decreased expression of occlusive protein-1 (ZO-1) and occlusive protein, an impaired intestinal mucosal oxidation system and intestinal villi relaxation. In addition, chlorpyrifos exposure significantly increased the contents of the inflammatory factor TNF-α and the oxidative-stress-related indicators superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione SH (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC); elevated the level of lipid peroxide malondialdehyde (MDA); reversed the expression of Bax and caspase; and activated NF-κB-related proteins. Interestingly, GSLS supplementation at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg significantly reversed these changes after treatment. Similar results were observed in cultured RAW264.7 cells. Using flow cytometry, Hoechst staining showed that GSLSs (30 μg/mL, 60 μg/mL) could improve the cell injury and apoptosis caused by CPF and reduce the accumulation of ROS in cells. In conclusion, GSLSs play a protective role against CPF-induced enterotoxicity by inhibiting NF-κB-mediated apoptosis and alleviating oxidative stress and inflammation.

Cold Plasma-Assisted Extraction of Phytochemicals: A Review

In recent years, there has been growing interest in bioactive plant compounds for their beneficial effects on health and for their potential in reducing the risk of developing certain diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. The extraction techniques conventionally used to obtain these phytocompounds, however, due to the use of toxic solvents and high temperatures, tend to be supplanted by innovative and unconventional techniques, in line with the demand for environmental and economic sustainability of new chemical processes. Among non-thermal technologies, cold plasma (CP), which has been successfully used for some years in the food industry as a treatment to improve food shelf life, seems to be one of the most promising solutions in green extraction processes. CP is characterized by its low environmental impact, low cost, and better extraction yield of phytochemicals, saving time, energy, and solvents compared with other classical extraction processes. In light of these considerations, this review aims to provide an overview of the potential and critical issues related to the use of CP in the extraction of phytochemicals, particularly polyphenols and essential oils. To review the current knowledge status and future insights of CP in this sector, a bibliometric study, providing quantitative information on the research activity based on the available published scientific literature, was carried out by the VOSviewer software (v. 1.6.18). Scientometric analysis has seen an increase in scientific studies over the past two years, underlining the growing interest of the scientific community in this natural substance extraction technique. The literature studies analyzed have shown that, in general, the use of CP was able to increase the yield of essential oil and polyphenols. Furthermore, the composition of the phytoextract obtained with CP would appear to be influenced by process parameters such as intensity (power and voltage), treatment time, and the working gas used. In general, the studies analyzed showed that the best yields in terms of total polyphenols and the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of the phytoextracts were obtained using mild process conditions and nitrogen as the working gas. The use of CP as a non-conventional extraction technique is very recent, and further studies are needed to better understand the optimal process conditions to be adopted, and above all, in-depth studies are needed to better understand the mechanisms of plasma-plant matrix interaction to verify the possibility of any side reactions that could generate, in a highly oxidative environment, potentially hazardous substances, which would limit the exploitation of this technique at the industrial level.

Dual-ratiometric aptasensor for simultaneous detection of malathion and profenofos based on hairpin tetrahedral DNA nanostructures

Due to the diversification and complexity of organophosphorus pesticide residues brings great challenges to the detection work. Therefore, we developed a dual-ratiometric electrochemical aptasensor that could detect malathion (MAL) and profenofos (PRO) simultaneously. In this study, metal ions, hairpin-tetrahedral DNA nanostructures (HP-TDN) and nanocomposites were used as signal tracers, sensing framework and signal amplification strategy respectively to develop the aptasensor. Thionine (Thi) labeled HP-TDN (HP-TDNThi) provided specific binding sites for assembling Pb2+ labeled MAL aptamer (Pb2+-APT1) and Cd2+ labeled PRO aptamer (Cd2+-APT2). When the target pesticides were present, Pb2+-APT1 and Cd2+-APT2 were dissociated from the hairpin complementary strand of HP-TDNThi, resulting in reduced oxidation currents of Pb²⁺ (I_Pb²⁺) and Cd²⁺ (I_Cd²⁺), respectively, while the oxidation currents of Thi (I_Thi) remained unchanged. Thus, I_Pb²⁺/I_Thi and I_Cd²⁺/I_Thi oxidation current ratios were used to quantify MAL and PRO, respectively. In addition, the gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) encapsulated in the zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF-8) nanocomposites (Au@ZIF-8) greatly increased the catch of HP-TDN, thereby amplifying the detection signal. The rigid three-dimensional structure of HP-TDN could reduce the steric hindrance effect on the electrode surface, which could greatly improve the recognition efficiency of the aptasensor for the pesticide. Under the optimal conditions, the detection limits of the HP-TDN aptasensor for MAL and PRO were 4.3 pg mL-1 and 13.3 pg mL-1, respectively. Our work proposed a new approach to fabricating a high-performance aptasensor for simultaneous detection of multiple organophosphorus pesticides, opening a new avenue for the development of simultaneous detection sensors in the field of food safety and environmental monitoring.

The Probiotic Lactobacillus sakei Subsp. Sakei and Hawthorn Extract Supplements Improved Growth Performance, Digestive Enzymes, Immunity, and Resistance to the Pesticide Acetamiprid in Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio)

This study evaluated the impacts of the probiotic, Lactobacillus sakei (L. sakei), and the extract of hawthorn, Crataegus elbursensis, on growth and immunity of the common carp exposed to acetamiprid. Fish (mean ± SE: 11.48 ± 0.1 g) feeding was done with formulated diets (T ₁ (control): no supplementation, T ₂: 1 × 10⁶ CFU/g LS (Lactobacillus sakei), T3: 1 × 10⁸ CFU/g LS, T ₄: 0.5% hawthorn extract (HWE), and T ₅: 1% HWE) for 60 days and then exposed to acetamiprid for 14 days. The growth performance improved in the fish fed LS at dietary level of 1 × 10⁸ CFU/g, even after exposure to acetamiprid (P < 0.05). Intestinal Lactobacillus sakei (CFU/g) load increased (P < 0.05), following supplementation with the probiotic-enriched diet. The LS-treated fish had increases in the activity of digestive enzymes (P < 0.05). Both LS and HWE stimulated antioxidant enzymes and immune system components in serum and mucus (alkaline phosphatase (ALP), protease, total Ig, and lysozyme) (P < 0.05). However, the changes were different depending on the kind of the supplement. The malondialdehyde (MDA) levels decreased in HWE-treated fish after acetamiprid exposure (P < 0.05). Both LS and HWE reduced the liver metabolic enzymes (LDH, ALP, AST, ALT, and LDH) in serum both before and after exposure to the pesticide (P < 0.05). However, each enzyme exhibited a different change trend depending on the type of the supplement. HWE showed a stress-ameliorating effect, as glucose and cortisol levels declined in the HWE-treated fish (P < 0.05). This study indicated the immunomodulatory impacts of LS (1 × 10⁸ CFU/g) and HWE (at dietary levels of 0.5-1%). The probiotic showed more performance compared to HWE. However, the HWE mitigated oxidative stress more efficiently than the probiotic.

Diethyl phosphate disrupts hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis endocrine hormones via nuclear receptors GR and Nur77: Integration of evidences from in vivo, in vitro and in silico approaches

Plenty of population epidemiology and cohort studies have found dialkyl phosphates (DAPs) in the urine were related to endocrine hormone disorders. However, we did not know whether these effects were caused by parent organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) or metabolite DAPs, especially the non-specific metabolite diethyl phosphate (DEP), which was the metabolic end product of most widely used diethyl OPs. In this study, animal experiments (in vivo), cell experiments (in vitro), small molecule-protein binding interaction experiments and computer molecular simulations (in silico) were used to explore the disturbing effects and molecular mechanisms of DEP on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis endocrine hormones. The animal experiments showed that chronic DEP exposure significantly disturbed the serum contents of HPA axis hormones in adult male rats. The target genes of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in rat liver, including 11β-hsd1 and Pepck1 and PEPCK protein expressions, were down-regulated. Moreover, the gluconeogenic abilities of rats were impaired. However, it did not affect the expression of GR in the rat hypothalamus. These results indicated that the physiological functions of glucocorticoids and GR were damaged. Furthermore, spectroscopy experiments, cell experiments, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations also suggested that DEP can bind to nuclear receptors GR and Nur77, affecting their transcription factor functions, and the transcriptional expression levels of their downstream target genes were reduced. The biosynthesis and secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone and glucocorticoids were blocked. Therefore, DEP can inhibit the production and physiological functions of HPA axis endocrine hormones by disrupting these related proteins and antagonizing nuclear receptors. These results were considered to provide a theoretical basis for strictly controlling the residue limits of OPs and their metabolites in foods, agricultural products and the environment. They also revealed new targets for evaluating the toxicities and risks of pesticide metabolites.

Applications of Probiotic-Based Multi-Components to Human, Animal and Ecosystem Health: Concepts, Methodologies, and Action Mechanisms

Probiotics and related preparations, including synbiotics and postbiotics, are living and non-living microbial-based multi-components, which are now among the most popular bioactive agents. Such interests mainly arise from the wide range and numerous beneficial effects of their use for various hosts. The current minireview article attempts to provide an overview and discuss in a holistic way the concepts, methodologies, action mechanisms, and applications of probiotic-based multi-components in human, animal, plant, soil, and environment health. Probiotic-based multi-component preparations refer to a mixture of bioactive agents, containing probiotics or postbiotics as main functional ingredients, and prebiotics, protectants, stabilizers, encapsulating agents, and other compounds as additional constituents. Analyzing, characterizing, and monitoring over time the traceability, performance, and stability of such multi-component ingredients require relevant and sensitive analytical tools and methodologies. Two innovative profiling and monitoring methods, the thermophysical fingerprinting thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry technique (TGA-DSC) of the whole multi-component powder preparations, and the Advanced Testing for Genetic Composition (ATGC) strain analysis up to the subspecies level, are presented, illustrated, and discussed in this review to respond to those requirements. Finally, the paper deals with some selected applications of probiotic-based multi-components to human, animal, plant, soil and environment health, while mentioning their possible action mechanisms.

Protective effect of protexin concentrate in reducing the toxicity of chlorpyrifos in common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

The present study aimed to evaluate the protective effect of protexin supplementation against chlorpyrifos-induced oxidative stress and immunotoxicity in Cyprinus carpio. After 21 days, the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase (GR), and total antioxidant levels significantly decreased in hepatocytes of fish exposed to chlorpyrifos, while malondialdehyde (MDA) increased. Treatment with protexin was able to reverse the decrease in SOD and GR and significantly reduce MDA levels. Exposure to chlorpyrifos also induced alterations in blood biochemical parameters and caused immunosuppression. Dietary protexin return some parameters (aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, and γ-glutamyltransferase activities, and glucose, cholesterol, total protein, creatinine, and complement C4 levels) to values similar to those of the control group. Based on the results, it can be concluded that protexin exerted protective effects against chlorpyrifos exposure in C. carpio reducing oxidative damage, and ameriorating blood biochemical alterations and the immunosuppression.

Occurrence, Distribution, and Risk Assessment of Organophosphorus Pesticides in the Aquatic Environment of the Sele River Estuary, Southern Italy

The intensive use of organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) causes concern among authorities in different countries, as many of them, remaining unchanged for a long time, pose a threat to environmental sustainability. This study assessed the spatio-temporal trends of nine OPPs in the water dissolved phase (WDP), suspended particulate matter (SPM), and sediment samples from the Sele River estuary, Southern Italy. Samples were collected in 10 sampling sites during four seasons. The highest levels were found at the mouth (mean value 28.25 ng L⁻¹ as WDP + SPM) and then decreased moving southwards to the Mediterranean Sea. Moreover, highest concentrations were detected in the warm season (July) with a mean value of 27.52 ng L⁻¹. The load contribution to the Mediterranean Sea was evaluated in about 61.5 kg year⁻¹, showing that the river was an important source of OPPs through discharge into the sea. The risk assessment revealed that no high-risk indices for the general-case scenario were observed, but for the worst-case scenario, potential risks were associated with chlorpyrifos, pyrimifos-methyl, and parathion, suggesting that OPP contamination should not be neglected. This study makes up the first record of OPPs in the surface waters of the Sele River and provides helpful data as a starting point for future studies.

The Occurrence of Lead in Animal Source Foods in Iran in the 2010s Decade: A Systematic Review

Lead is a toxic, non-biodegradable, and accumulative heavy metal released into the environment by natural and anthropogenic activities. Despite health concerns due to the consumption of lead-contaminated foods, no systematic and comprehensive review studies have been published about the lead occurrence in animal source foods in Iran. The present study aimed to review the papers investigating the Pb contamination in animal-based food groups (including meat, fish, milk and dairy products, egg and honey) in Iran. A comprehensive search was performed with selected keywords in databases of Scopus, Web of science, and Magiran to find articles that had been published from January 2010 to December 2019. Of 371 identified articles on Pb contaminations in foods, 60 articles were selected using PRISMA. The lead concentrations were higher than the maximum recommended limits in 3 of 9 studies on meat and meat products, 12 of 26 studies on fish and canned fish, and 5 of 18 studies on milk and dairy products. However, the Pb contamination observed in studies on honey and egg was not comparable due to the lack of national and international standards. These results represent the importance of environmental monitoring and assessment for reducing exposure of animals to Pb, resulting in an improvement of food safety.

Diazinon reduction in apple juice using probiotic bacteria during fermentation and storage under refrigeration

The main objective of this work was to study the effects of probiotic strains, probiotic primary inoculated population, concentrations of spiked diazinon, physiology of probiotic bacteria, fermentation times, and cold storage period in six consecutive stages on diazinon reduction in apple juice. Chemical properties (pH, total acidity, and sugar content), probiotic viability, and diazinon reduction percent were monitored during fermentation and cold storage. Dispersive solid phase extraction (dSPE) followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to extract and measure diazinon concentration. Results showed that Lactobacillus acidophilus revealed the highest ability to reduce diazinon in apple juice after fermentation. Inoculation of L. acidophilus at 9 log CFU/mL showed significantly higher diazinon reducing ability than 7 log CFU/mL. L. acidophilus reduced diazinon in apple juice samples containing 1000 μg/L of spiked diazinon significantly higher than those containing 5000 μg/L. Heat-killed (dead) L. acidophilus bacteria reduced less diazinon content at the end of fermentation than viable bacteria. Furthermore, 72 h of fermentation was more effective in diazinon reduction. Spiked diazinon is completely disappeared at the end of cold storage (28 days) in treatments containing L. acidophilus, while the viability of probiotic bacteria required for causing health-promoting properties was maintained in apple juice.

Transitioning from Oxime to the Next Potential Organophosphorus Poisoning Therapy Using Enzymes

For years, organophosphorus poisoning has been a major concern of health problems throughout the world. An estimated 200,000 acute pesticide poisoning deaths occur each year, many in developing countries. Apart from the agricultural pesticide poisoning, terrorists have used these organophosphorus compounds to attack civilian populations in some countries. Recent misuses of sarin in the Syrian conflict had been reported in 2018. Since the 1950s, the therapy to overcome this health problem is to utilize a reactivator to reactivate the inhibited acetylcholinesterase by these organophosphorus compounds. However, many questions remain unanswered regarding the efficacy and toxicity of this reactivator. Pralidoxime, MMB-4, TMB-4, obidoxime, and HI-6 are the examples of the established oximes, yet they are of insufficient effectiveness in some poisonings and only a limited spectrum of the different nerve agents and pesticides are being covered. Alternatively, an option in the treatment of organophosphorus poisoning that has been explored is through the use of enzyme therapy. Organophosphorus hydrolases are a group of enzymes that look promising for detoxifying organophosphorus compounds and have recently gained much interest. These enzymes have demonstrated remarkable protective and antidotal value against some different organophosphorus compounds in vivo in animal models. Apart from that, enzyme treatments have also been applied for decontamination purposes. In this review, the restrictions and obstacles in the therapeutic development of oximes, along with the new strategies to overcome the problems, are discussed. The emerging interest in enzyme treatment with its advantages and disadvantages is described as well.

Probiotics as a biological detoxification tool of food chemical contamination: A review

Nowadays, people are exposed to diverse environmental and chemical pollutants produced by industry and agriculture. Food contaminations such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), heavy metals, and mycotoxins are a serious concern for global food safety with economic and public health implications especially in the newly industrialized countries (NIC). Mounting evidence indicates that chronic exposure to food contaminants referred to as xenobiotics exert a negative effect on human health such as inflammation, oxidative stress, and intestinal disorders linked with perturbation of the composition and metabolic profile of the gut microflora. Although the physicochemical technologies for food decontamination are utilized in many cases but require adequate conditions which are often not feasible to be met in many industrial sectors. At present, one promising approach to reduce the risk related to the presence of xenobiotics in foodstuffs is a biological detoxification done by probiotic strains and their enzymes. Many studies confirmed that probiotics are an effective, feasible, and inexpensive tool for preventing xenobiotic-induced dysbiosis and alleviating their toxicity. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge of the direct mechanisms by which probiotics can influence the detoxification of xenobiotics. Moreover, probiotic-xenobiotic interactions with the gut microbiota and the host response were also discussed.

Selective uptake determines the variation in degradation of organophosphorus pesticides by Lactobacillus plantarum

Organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) are widely used worldwide, leading to varying degrees of residues in food. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can degrade OPPs by producing phosphatase. This study explored the reasons for the variation in the degradation of different OPPs by Lactobacillus plantarum. The results showed that the degradation effects of OPPs by L. plantarum (intact cells) varied greatly, the degradation rate constant of phoxim was 1.65-fold higher than that of dichlorvos. However, the phosphatase extracted from L. plantarum had no degradation selectivity for OPPs in vitro. It was speculated that the selective uptake of cells determines this degradation selectivity. The results of molecular docking supported this hypothesis because there was no difference in the binding energies between phosphatase and OPPs, while the binding energies between phosphate-binding protein and pesticides were different, and they were negatively correlated with the degradation rate constants of the eight OPPs by L. plantarum.