Control of lipid digestion and nutraceutical bioaccessibility using starch-based filled hydrogels: Influence of starch and surfactant type

Role of pectin in the delivery of β-carotene embedded in interpenetrating emulsion-filled gels made with soy protein isolate

This study investigated the effects of different matrices on gel properties, lipid digestibility, β-carotene bioaccessibility, released free amino acids and gel network degradation. Microstructure studies have proven that sugar beet pectin/soy protein isolate-based emulsion-filled gel (SBP/SPI-E) with interpenetrating networks was formed. SBP/SPI-E exhibited higher hardness (2.67 N, p < 0.05) and released lesser free amino acids (269.48-μmol/g SPI) than soy protein isolate-based emulsion-filled gel (SPI-E) in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF); however, both had similar free amino acids contents in simulated colonic fluid. SBP has the potential to delay gel network degradation in SIF, as evidenced by the sugar stain strips of SDS-PAGE and microstructure observation. Furthermore, SBP/SPI-E and SPI-E exhibited similar β-carotene bioaccessibility in SIF, suggesting that SBP from composite gel could not affect the aforementioned bioaccessibility. The study provides useful information for the design of functional gels in the application of fat-soluble nutrient delivery.

Design, characterization and digestibility of β-carotene-loaded emulsion system stabilized by whey protein with chitosan and potato starch addition

The physicochemical properties and gastrointestinal fate of β-carotene-loaded emulsions and emulsion gels were examined. The emulsion was emulsified by whey protein isolate and incorporated with chitosan, then the emulsion gels were produced by gelatinizing potato starch in the aqueous phase. The rheology properties, water distribution, and microstructure of emulsions and emulsion gels were modulated by chitosan combination. A standardized INFOGEST method was employed to track the gastrointestinal fate of emulsion systems. Significant changes in droplet size, zeta-potential, and aggregation state were detected during in vitro digestion, including simulated oral, stomach, and small intestine phases. The presence of chitosan led to a significantly reduced free fatty acids release in emulsion, whereas a slightly increasing released amount in the emulsion gel. β-carotene bioaccessibility was significantly improved by hydrogel formation and chitosan addition. These results could be used to formulate advanced emulsion systems to improve the gastrointestinal fate of hydrophobic nutraceuticals.

Tailoring 3D-printed high internal phase emulsion-rice starch gels: Role of amylose in rheology and bioactive stability

This study investigated the properties of 3D-printed high internal phase emulsion (HIPE)-rice starch gels, specially tailored for personalized nutrition by co-encapsulating resveratrol and β-carotene. We examined the influence of amylose content on various parameters, including functional groups, linear and nonlinear rheology, printed precision and microstructural stability. Additionally, we assessed the protective efficacy and release in vitro digestion of these gels on the encapsulated bioactive components. Compared to HIPE, HIPE-starch gels differently impacted by amylose content in starches. Low-level amylose weakened the network structure, attributed to amylose mainly responsible for gel formation and weak hydrogen bond interaction between the surface-active molecules and amylose due to gelatinized starch granules rupturing the protein network. Oppositely, high-level amylose led to denser, more gel-like structures with enhanced mechanical strength and reversible deformation resistance, making them suitable for 3D printing. Furthermore, 3D-printed gels with high-level amylose demonstrated well-defined structures, smooth surfaces, stable printing and less dimension deviation. They were also regarded as effective entrapping and delivery systems for resveratrol and β-carotene, protecting them against degradation from environment and damage under the erosion of digestive fluid. Overall, this research offers a straightforward strategy for creating reduced-fat HIPE gels that serve as the carrier for personalized nutraceutical foods.

Fabrication and characterization of chitosan-pectin emulsion-filled hydrogel prepared by cold-set gelation to improve bioaccessibility of lipophilic bioactive compounds

Chitosan-pectin emulsion-filled hydrogel (EFH) was developed to enhance the bioaccessibility of lipophilic bioactive compounds through intestinal delivery. The EFH, incorporating a sodium caseinate-stabilized emulsion, was prepared using cold-set gelation under acidic conditions without crosslinking agents. Increasing the pectin concentration (0.75-1.50%, w/v) improved the mechanical strength and compactness of the EFH. The pH-responsive EFH retained the emulsion at pH 2.0 and released it at pH 7.4. In vitro digestion demonstrated that the EFH remained intact during oral and gastric stages, while the emulsion alone became destabilized. During intestinal digestion, the release of free fatty acids from the EFH decreased from 58.67% to 43.76% as the pectin concentration increased from 0.75% to 1.50%. EFH with 0.75% and 1.00% pectin significantly improved curcumin bioaccessibility compared to the emulsion alone. These findings demonstrate the potential of chitosan-pectin EFH as a novel carrier system for enhancing the bioaccessibility of lipophilic bioactive compounds.

The impact of differently structured starch gels on the gastrointestinal fate of a curcumin-containing nanoemulsion

In this study, we focused on the in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of curcumin-nanoemulsion-loaded corn starch gels formed using starches with different amylose contents, i.e. waxy (WCS), normal (NCS) and high amylose (HACS) corn starches and their impact on the release and bioaccessibility of curcumin. Curcumin nanoemulsion (CNE) loading significantly increased the storage modulus of the WCS and NCS gels by interspersing in the gelatinized continuous phase, whereas it decreased in the HACS gel due to the formation of a weak network structure as a result of the incomplete gelatinized amylose granules. During the gastric digestion, the disintegration and emptying of the WCS + CNE gel from the stomach was the slowest compared to the other two gels. The changes in the stomach, influenced the emptying of total solids (HACS + CNE > NCS + CNE > WCS + CNE) into the gastric digesta, which further affected the rate of starch and lipid digestion during the intestinal phase. The HACS + CNE and NCS + CNE gels showed a higher and faster release of curcumin compared to the WCS + CNE gel that showed a slower and sustained release during the intestinal digestion. This study demonstrated that the oral-gastric digestion of these starch gels was more dependent on the gel structures rather than on the molecular properties of the starches. The dynamic gastric environment resulted in the formation of distinct gel structures, which significantly influenced the composition and microstructure of the emptied digesta, further affecting starch hydrolysis and curcumin bioaccessibility in the small intestine.

Bioaccessibility and bioactive potential of different phytochemical classes from nutraceuticals and functional foods

Nutraceuticals and functional foods are composed of especially complex matrices, with polyphenols, carotenoids, minerals, and vitamins, among others, being the main classes of phytochemicals involved in their bioactivities. Despite their wide use, further investigations are needed to certify the proper release of these phytochemicals into the gastrointestinal medium, where the bioaccessibility assay is one of the most frequently used method. The aim of this review was to gather and describe different methods that can be used to assess the bioaccessibility of nutraceuticals and functional foods, along with the most important factors that can impact this process. The link between simulated digestion testing of phytochemicals and their in vitro bioactivity is also discussed, with a special focus on the potential of developing nutraceuticals and functional foods from simple plant materials. The bioactive potential of certain classes of phytochemicals from nutraceuticals and functional foods is susceptible to different variations during the bioaccessibility assessment, with different factors contributing to this variability, namely the chemical composition and the nature of the matrix. Regardless of the high number of studies, the current methodology fails to assume correlations between bioaccessibility and bioactivity, and the findings of this review indicate a necessity for updated and standardized protocols.

The Microstructure, Rheological Characteristics, and Digestibility Properties of Binary or Ternary Mixture Systems of Gelatinized Potato Starch/Milk Protein/Soybean Oil during the In Vitro Digestion Process

The in vitro digestibility of potato starch-based foods interacting with milk protein and soybean oil was investigated. Microstructures and rheological changes upon digestion were determined. The results showed that the addition of milk proteins (casein and whey protein) promoted gelatinized potato starch digestion, while soybean oil slowed down gelatinized potato starch digestion. A mixture of soybean oil and milk protein promoted the digestion of milk protein, while a mixture of gelatinized potato starch and milk protein inhibited the digestion of milk protein. The mixture of milk protein and/or gelatinized potato starch with soybean oil promoted the release of free fatty acids in soybean oil. The highest release rate of free fatty acids was attained by a mix of milk protein and soybean oil. The mixed samples were digested and observed with a confocal laser scanning microscope. The viscosity of the digestates was determined by a rheometer. Overall, the results demonstrated that the addition of milk protein and soybean oil had an effect on the in vitro digestibility of gelatinized potato starch and its microstructure.

Digestion behaviour of capsaicinoid-loaded emulsion gels and bioaccessibility of capsaicinoids: Effect of emulsifier type

In this study, the effect of emulsifier type, i.e. whey protein versus Tween 80, on the digestion behaviour of emulsion gels containing capsaicinoids (CAPs) was examined. The results indicate that the CAP-loaded Tween 80 emulsion gel was emptied out significantly faster during gastric digestion than the CAP-loaded whey protein emulsion gel. The Tween-80-coated oil droplets appeared to be in a flocculated state in the emulsion gel, had no interactions with the protein matrix and were easily released from the protein matrix during gastric digestion. The whey-protein-coated oil droplets showed strong interactions with the protein matrix, and the presence of thick protein layer around the oil droplets protected their liberation during gastric digestion. During intestinal digestion, the CAP-loaded Tween 80 emulsion gel had a lower extent of lipolysis than the CAP-loaded whey protein emulsion gel, probably because the interfacial layer formed by Tween 80 was resistance to displacement by bile salts, and/or because Tween 80 formed interfacial complexes with bile salts/lipolytic enzymes. Because of the softer structure of the CAP-loaded Tween 80 emulsion gel, the gel particles were broken down much faster and the oil droplets were liberated from the protein matrix more readily than for the CAP-loaded whey protein emulsion gel during intestinal digestion; this promoted the release of CAP molecules from the gel. In addition, the Tween 80 molecules displaced from the interface would participate in the formation of mixed micelles and would help to solubilize the released CAP molecules, leading to improved bioaccessibility of CAP. Information obtained from this study could be useful in designing functional foods for the delivery of lipophilic bioactive compounds.

Construction of lipid-biomacromolecular compounds for loading and delivery of carotenoids: Preparation methods, structural properties, and absorption-enhancing mechanisms

Due to the unstable chemical properties and poor water solubility of carotenoids, their processing adaptation and oral bioavailability are poor, limiting their application in hydrophilic food systems. Lipid-biomacromolecular compounds can be excellent carriers for carotenoid delivery by taking full advantage of the solubilization of lipids to non-polar nutrients and the water dispersion and gastrointestinal controlled release properties of biomacromolecules. This paper reviewed the research progress of lipid-biomacromolecular compounds as encapsulation and delivery carriers of carotenoids and summarized the material selection and preparation methods for biomacromolecular compounds. By considering the interaction between the two, this paper briefly discussed the effect of these compounds on carotenoid water solubility, stability, and bioavailability, emphasizing their delivery effect on carotenoids. Finally, various challenges and future trends of lipid-biomacromolecular compounds as carotenoid delivery carriers were discussed, providing new insight into efficient loading and delivery of carotenoids.

Enhancing bioaccessibility and bioavailability of carotenoids using emulsion-based delivery systems

The consumption of foods rich in antioxidants, vitamins, minerals including carotenoids etc. can boost the immune system to help fight off various infections including SARS- CoV 2 and other viruses. Carotenoids have been gaining attention particularly in food and pharmaceutical industries owing to their diverse functions including their role as pro-vitamin A activity, potent antioxidant properties, and quenching of reactive oxygen (ROS), such as singlet oxygen and lipid peroxides within the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. Nevertheless, carotenoids being lipophilic, have poor solubility in aqueous medium and are also chemically instable. They are susceptible to degrade under stimuli environmental conditions during food processing, storage and gastrointestinal passage. They also exhibit poor oral bioavailability, thus, their applications in aqueous-based foods are limited. As a consequent, suitable delivery systems including colloids-based are needed to enhance the solubility, stability and bioavailability of carotenoids. This review presents challenges of incorporation and delivery of carotenoids focusing on stability and factors affecting bioavailability. Furthermore, designed factors impacting bioaccessibility and bioavailability of carotenoids using emulsion-based delivery systems are explicitly explained. Each delivery system exhibits its own advantages and disadvantages; thus, the delivery systems should be designed based on their targets and their further applications.

Starch-based materials encapsulating food ingredients: Recent advances in fabrication methods and applications

Encapsulation systems have gained significant interest in designing innovative foods, as they allow for the protection and delivery of food ingredients that have health benefits but are unstable during processing, storage and in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Starch is widely available, cheap, biodegradable, edible, and easy to be modified, thus highly suitable for the development of encapsulants. Much efforts have been made to fabricate various types of porous starch and starch particles using different techniques (e.g. enzymatic hydrolysis, aggregation, emulsification, electrohydrodynamic process, supercritical fluid process, and post-processing drying). Such starch-based systems can load, protect, and deliver various food ingredients (e.g. fatty acids, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, flavors, essential oils, irons, vitamins, probiotics, bacteriocins, co-enzymes, and caffeine), exhibiting great potentials in developing foods with tailored flavor, nutrition, sensory properties, and shelf-life. This review surveys recent advances in different aspects of starch-based encapsulation systems including their forms, manufacturing techniques, and applications in foods.

Investigation of the Formation Mechanism and Curcumin Bioaccessibility of Emulsion Gels Based on Sugar Beet Pectin and Laccase Catalysis

In this study, modified whey protein hydrolysates (WPH) were obtained after succinic anhydride succinylation and linear dextrin glycation, and emulsion gels were prepared on the basis of unmodified/modified WPH stabilized emulsions with sugar beet pectin (SBP) addition and laccase-catalyzed cross-linking. The influences of emulsifier types and SBP contents on the texture of emulsion gels were estimated. The texture and rheological properties of emulsion gels were characterized. An ideal gel emulsion was formed when the SBP content was 3% (w/w). A uniform network was observed in emulsion gels stabilized by W-L, W-L-S, and W-S-L. In addition, the effect of the emulsifier type on the bioaccessibility of curcumin encapsulated in emulsion gels was investigated and the W-S-L stabilized emulsion gel exhibited the highest curcumin bioaccessibility (65.57%). This study provides a theoretical basis for the development of emulsion gels with different textures by SBP addition and laccase cross-linking as encapsulation delivery systems.

Recent advances in the structure, synthesis, and applications of natural polymeric hydrogels

Hydrogels, polymeric network materials, are capable of swelling and holding the bulk of water in their three-dimensional structures upon swelling. In recent years, hydrogels have witnessed increased attention in food and biomedical applications. In this paper, the available literature related to the design concepts, types, functionalities, and applications of hydrogels with special emphasis on food applications was reviewed. Hydrogels from natural polymers are preferred over synthetic hydrogels. They are predominantly used in diverse food applications for example in encapsulation, drug delivery, packaging, and more recently for the fabrication of structured foods. Natural polymeric hydrogels offer immense benefits due to their extraordinary biocompatible nature. Hydrogels based on natural/edible polymers, for example, those from polysaccharides and proteins, can serve as prospective alternatives to synthetic polymer-based hydrogels. The utilization of hydrogels has so far been limited, despite their prospects to address various issues in the food industries. More research is needed to develop biomimetic hydrogels, which can imitate the biological characteristics in addition to the physicochemical properties of natural materials for different food applications.

Preparation of functional rice cake by using β-carotene-loaded emulsion powder

The purpose of this study was to apply a powdered β-carotene-loaded emulsion to a real food product, Korean traditional rice cakes (Garaedduk). β-Carotene was incorporated into the oil phase of a sodium caseinate-stabilized emulsion. Emulsion powder containing β-carotene was prepared using freeze-drying, and maltodextrin and gum arabic were used as wall materials. Oil/protein/maltodextrin weight ratios of 3:1:2 and 3:1:5 (core-to-wall ratios of 1:1 and 1:2) were used, and gum arabic was added by replacing the amount of maltodextrin for 0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.5% w/w. Manufactured emulsion powders prepared with wall material at a core-to-wall ratio of 1:2 remained stable after reconstitution in terms of particle diameter and ζ-potential. The encapsulation efficiency of the emulsion powder increased by 90% in the presence of maltodextrin at a core-to-wall ratio of 1:2. Garaedduk containing the emulsion powder was then manufactured and it was confirmed that β-carotene was not degraded during the manufacturing process of Garaedduk by using HPLC. The results from this study may be useful for rational designing of functional foods with lipophilic bioactive materials.

Preparation and characterization of pH-responsive microgel using arabinoxylan from wheat bran for BSA delivery

Wheat bran arabinoxylan (AX) discard from wheat production was utilized to form pH-responsive microgels. AX was modified by carboxymethylation, and the carboxymethylated arabinoxylans (CMAX) were characterized by FT-IR, NMR, gel permeation chromatography (GPC), and rheological analysis. The CMAX microgel was cross-linked by Fe³⁺ using an inverse emulsification polymerization. The morphology, particle size, pH sensitivity, and mechanism of cross-linking between COO^- and Fe³⁺ of the CMAX microgel was investigated. The CMAX microgel was used to be an oral protein drug carrier. The CMAX microgel particles exhibited a stable spherical structure. FT-IR spectral analysis of the CMAX microgel indicated that the microgel was crosslinked by bridging Fe³⁺ and COO^- with unidentate binding. The CMAX microgel exhibited good pH sensitivity and high stability in acid condition. Additionally, BSA was used as the embedding protein, and the controlled release effect of CMAX microgel was explored in gastrointestinal tract simulation.

Emulsion-filled hydrogels for food applications: influence of pH on emulsion stability and a coating on microgel protection

Encapsulation structures for oral administration have been widely employed by the food, personal care, and pharmaceutical industries. Emulsion-filled microgels can be used to encapsulate bioactive compounds, allowing the entrapment of lipid droplets in biopolymer networks and promoting bioactive protection. The influence of pH and biopolymer concentration on the formation and structure of emulsions was evaluated, allowing the production of emulsion-filled hydrogels with potato starch as the main compound, a low alginate concentration, and gelatin in the continuous phase. Potato starch was used because it is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and has phosphate groups, which allow electrostatic interactions with biopolymers and provide resistance to the network. Emulsion stability was achieved at pH 6, while complexation was verified under acidic conditions, which made the ionic gelation process unfeasible for the production of microgels. After defining the pH for emulsion production, microgels were formed by ionic gelation and coated microgels by electrostatic interactions, as evidenced by quartz crystal microbalance. The alginate and gelatin coating did not affect the morphology of the microparticles. An in vitro digestion assay showed that microgels composed mainly of potato starch were not degraded in the simulated mouth step. The coating layer provided extra microgel protection during digestion, demonstrating the ability of encapsulation systems to promote targeted delivery of bioactive compounds.

Effect of interfacial layer number on the storage stability and in vitro digestion of fish oil-loaded multilayer emulsions consisting of gelatin particle and polysaccharides

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of the interfacial layer number on the storage stability and in vitro digestion of fish oil-loaded primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary multilayer emulsions stabilized by gelatin particle and polysaccharides (anionic alginate and cationic chitosan), prepared using a layer-by-layer electrostatic deposition technique. The results demonstrate that the emulsion creaming stability during the storage process and the emulsion droplet stability against the gastric phase are dependent on the interfacial layer number. But, the interfacial layer number in the multilayer emulsions has no obvious effects on the droplet stability against droplet coalescence during the storage process and against the small intestinal phases of gastrointestinal tract models. Moreover, it also has no obvious effect on the sustained free fatty acid release of multilayer emulsions. This study can advance the fundamental understanding of multilayer emulsions and promote their potential applications.

Improved bioaccessibility of polymethoxyflavones loaded into high internal phase emulsions stabilized by biopolymeric complexes: A dynamic digestion study via TNO's gastrointestinal model

In this work, the bioaccessibility of polymethoxyflavones (PMFs) loaded in high internal phase emulsions (HIPE, ϕ_oil = 0.82) stabilized by whey protein isolate (WPI)-low methoxy pectin (LMP) complexes was evaluated using in vitro lipolysis and dynamic in vitro intestinal digestion studies. PMFs loaded HIPE was prepared by using aqueous dispersion of pre-formed biopolymeric complexes (WPI-LMP, 2:1 ratio) as the external phase and medium chain triglycerides oil (containing PMFs extracted from citrus peel) as the dispersed phase. The in vitro lipolysis study revealed that PMFs in HIPE became bioaccessible much higher than PMFs in medium chain triacylglycerols oil (MCT oil). In addition, by simulating the entire human gastrointestinal (GI) tract, the GI model TIM-1 demonstrated a 5- and 2-fold increase in the total bioaccessibility for two major PMFs encapsulated in HIPE, i.e. tangeretin (TAN) and nobiletin (NOB), respectively, as opposed to PMFs in MCT oil. Together these results from the digestion study showed that the incorporation of a high amount of PMFs into the viscoelastic matrix of HIPE could represent an innovative and effective way to design an oral delivery system. Such a system could be used to control and to improve the delivery of lipophilic bioactive compounds within the different compartments of the digestive tract, especially the human upper GI tract.

The effect of pH on the stabilization and digestive characteristics of soybean lipophilic protein oil-in-water emulsions with hypromellose

The development of functional foods requires a detailed understanding of the behavior of lipophilic protein (LP) in the presence of emulsion stabilizers at different pH conditions. In this study, we examined the interaction between hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (hypromellose, HPMC) and soybean lipophilic protein. To that end, we examined the stabilities of LP-HPMC emulsions at pH 3, 5, and 7, as well as the oil-release behavior of LP-HPMC emulsions during digestion. Fluorescence data showed that HPMC binds to LP with quenching at a single binding site that did not change with pH. Atomic-force microscopy, emulsification, and oxidation-stability analyses showed that HPMC improves the pH stability of the LP-HPMC emulsions, while simulated in-vitro digestion experiments showed that added HPMC delayed the release of lipids to varying degrees. The results of this study will aid in the development of emulsion-based functional foods, pharmaceutical carriers with controlled-release or sustained-release functional ingredients.

Fucoxanthin-Loaded Oil-in-Water Emulsion-Based Delivery Systems: Effects of Natural Emulsifiers on the Formulation, Stability, and Bioaccessibility

The effect of natural emulsifiers (whey protein isolate, WPI; modified lecithin, ML; and gum arabic, GA) on the formulation, stability, and bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin-loaded oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions was determined in this study. The fine emulsions were prepared under high-pressure homogenization at 100 MPa for 4 passes, using 2 wt % WPI, ML, and GA, resulting in emulsions with the droplet sizes of 136, 140, and 897 nm, respectively. The chemical stability of fucoxanthin in the emulsions after long-term storage at ambient temperature decreased in the following order: WPI > GA > ML. The release of free fatty acids of fucoxanthin, studied by in vitro digestion, decreased in the following order: WPI > ML > GA > bulk oil. The bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin in emulsions stabilized by WPI, ML, and GA after in vitro digestion were 92.5 ± 6.8%, 44.6 ± 0.4, and 36.8 ± 2.5, respectively. These results indicate that natural emulsifier type and concentration used significantly affects the formulation, stability, lipid digestion, and fucoxanthin bioaccessibility, which may be ascribed to the different properties of each emulsifier. The bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin was improved by using emulsion-based delivery systems.

An update on polymer-lipid hybrid systems for improving oral drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

A promising approach that has recently emerged to overcome the complex biobarriers and interrelated challenges associated with oral drug absorption is to combine the benefits of polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers within one hybrid system. This multifaceted formulation strategy has given rise to a plethora of polymer-lipid hybrid (PLH) systems with varying nanostructures and biological activities, all of which have demonstrated the ability to improve the biopharmaceutical performance of a wide range of challenging therapeutics.

AREAS COVERED

The multitude of polymers that can be combined with lipids to exert a synergistic effect for oral drug delivery have been identified, reviewed and critically evaluated. Specific focus is attributed to preclinical studies performed within the past 5 years that have elucidated the role and mechanism of the polymer phase in altering the oral absorption of encapsulated therapeutics.

EXPERT OPINION

The potential of PLH systems has been clearly identified; however, improved understanding of the structure-activity relationship between PLH systems and oral absorption is fundamental for translating this promising delivery approach into a clinically relevant formulation. Advancing research within this field to identify optimal polymer, lipid combinations and engineering conditions for specific therapeutics are therefore encouraged.

Impact of emulsifier nature and concentration on the stability of β-carotene enriched nanoemulsions during in vitro digestion

This study reveals the importance of emulsifier nature and concentration used to elaborate nanoemulsions as targeted delivery systems for β-carotene.

Fabrication and Characterization of Starch Nanohydrogels via Reverse Emulsification and Internal Gelation

Biopolymer-based nanohydrogels have great potential for various applications, including in food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries. Herein, starch nanohydrogels were prepared for the first time via reverse emulsification coupled with internal gelation. The effects of starch type (normal corn, potato, and pea starches), amylose content, and gelation time on the structural, morphological, and physicochemical properties of starch nanohydrogels were investigated. The diameter of starch nanohydrogel particles was around 100 nm after 12 h of retrogradation time. The relative crystallinity and thermal properties of starch nanohydrogels increased gradually with an increasing amylose content and gelation time. The swelling behavior of starch nanohydrogels was dependent upon the amylose content, and the swelling ratios were between 2.0 and 14.0, with the pea starch nanogels exhibiting the lowest values and the potato starch nanogels exhibiting the highest values.

Enhanced delivery of lipophilic bioactives using emulsions: a review of major factors affecting vitamin, nutraceutical, and lipid bioaccessibility

Many researchers are currently developing emulsion-based delivery systems to increase the bioavailability of lipophilic bioactive agents, such as oil-soluble vitamins, nutraceuticals, and lipids. Oil-in-water emulsions can be specifically designed to improve the bioavailability of these bioactives by altering their composition and structural organization. This article reviews recent progress in understanding the impact of emulsion properties on the bioaccessibility of lipophilic bioactive agents, including oil phase composition, aqueous phase composition, droplet size, emulsifier type, lipid physical state, and droplet aggregation state. This knowledge can be used to design emulsions that can enhance the bioavailability and efficacy of encapsulated hydrophobic bioactives.