Effect of the weight ratio of alginate-modified tapioca starch on the physicochemical properties and release kinetics of chlorogenic acid containing beads

Chitosan Alginate Nanoparticles of Protein Hydrolysate from Acheta domesticus with Enhanced Stability for Skin Delivery

This study aimed to develop chitosan alginate nanoparticles (CANPs) for enhanced stability for dermal delivery of protein hydrolysate from Acheta domesticus (PH). CANPs, developed using ionotropic pre-gelation followed by the polyelectrolyte complex technique, were characterized for particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential. After the incorporation of PH into CANPs, a comprehensive assessment included encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, morphology, chemical analyses, physical and chemical stability, irritation potential, release profile, skin permeation, and skin retention. The most optimal CANPs, comprising 0.6 mg/mL sodium alginate, 1.8 mg/mL calcium chloride, and 0.1 mg/mL chitosan, exhibited the smallest particle size (309 ± 0 nm), the narrowest PDI (0.39 ± 0.01), and pronounced negative zeta potential (-26.0 ± 0.9 mV), along with an encapsulation efficiency of 56 ± 2%, loading capacity of 2.4 ± 0.1%, release of 40 ± 2% after 48 h, and the highest skin retention of 12 ± 1%. The CANPs induced no irritation and effectively enhanced the stability of PH from 44 ± 5% of PH remaining in a solution to 74 ± 4% after three-month storage. Therefore, the findings revealed the considerable potential of CANPs in improving PH stability and skin delivery, with promising applications in cosmetics and related fields.

Effect of incorporating modified pinhão starch in alginate-based hydrogel beads for encapsulation of bioactive compounds by hydrodynamic electrospray ionization jetting

Known for its antioxidant properties, Araucaria angustifolia bracts extract was encapsulated using hydrodynamic electrospray ionization jetting within calcium alginate cross-linked hydrogel beads with varying contents of modified pinhão starch. The rheological properties of the dispersions and analysis of the physicochemical and digestive properties of encapsulated beads were studied. The results demonstrated that dispersions containing starch exhibited higher viscosity and reduced compliance values, indicating samples with stronger, more compact, and stable structures that are less susceptible to deformation. This was confirmed by the beads rupture strength test. The ATR-FTIR analysis suggest that no new chemical bonds were formed, with encapsulation being responsible only for physical interactions between the functional groups of the polymers used and the active groups of the compounds present in the extract. The thermal stability of starch-containing beads was higher. Total tannins were higher in beads containing starch, with 53.61 %, 56.83 %, and 66.99 % encapsulation yield for samples with 2 %, 4 %, and 6 % starch, respectively, and the remaining antioxidant activity ranged from 96.04 % to 81.08 %. In vitro gastrointestinal digestion simulation indicated that the highest releases occurred in the intestinal phase, ranging from 60.72 % to 63.50 % for the release of total phenolic compounds.

Formation of pH-responsive hydrogel beads and their gel properties: Soybean protein nanofibers and sodium alginate

Hydrogel beads prepared from protein nanofibers are popular because of their safety, sleek appearance, and protection of biologically active substances. However, extreme external environmental variations, such as pH and temperature, can limit their practical application. To meet the application requirements of hydrogel beads in different environments, non-covalent mixtures of CaCl2 cross-linked soybean protein nanofibers (SNF) and sodium alginate (SA) were used to prepare hydrogel beads. In the present study, the hardness (782.48 g) and elasticity of hydrogel beads formed at SNF/SA = 7:3 and CaCl2 concentration of 0.1 mol/L were the maximum. Furthermore, the water content and pH swelling also reached a peak (98.68 %, 43.85 g/g) due to the best morphology and regular internal network structure. Meanwhile, the pH-responsive hydrogel beads with added anthocyanins were able to respond to the ambient pH under different temperatures and pH conditions and maintained color stability during 96 h of storage (ΔE < 5). In this experiment, a pH-responsive hydrogel bead based on soybean protein nanofiber (SNF) and sodium alginate (SA) was prepared by simple ionic crosslinking. It provides a theoretical and experimental basis for the future application of plant protein nanofibers as pH-responsive hydrogel materials.

Comparison of the Adsorption and Desorption Dynamics of Biological Molecules on Alginate Hydrogel Microcapsules-The Case of Sugars, Polyphenols, and Proteins

The aim of this work was to analyze and compare the adsorption and desorption processes of carbohydrates (glucose as a model molecule), polyphenols (gallic acid as a model molecule), and proteins (bovine serum albumin, BSA as a model molecule) on alginate microcapsules. The adsorption and desorption processes were described by mathematical models (pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and Weber-Morris intraparticle diffusion model for adsorption, and first-order, Korsmeyer-Peppas, and the Higuchi model for desorption) in order to determine the dominant mechanisms responsible for both processes. By comparing the values of adsorption rate (k2) and initial adsorption rate (h0) based on the pseudo-first-order model, the lowest values were recorded for BSA (k1 = 0.124 ± 0.030 min-1), followed by glucose (k1 = 0.203 ± 0.041 min-1), while the model-obtained values for gallic acid were not considered significant at p < 0.05. For glucose and gallic acid, the limiting step of the adsorption process is the chemical sorption of substances, and the rate of adsorption does not depend on the adsorbate concentration, but depends on the capacity of the hydrogel adsorbent. Based on the desorption rates determined by the Korsmeyer-Peppas model (k), the highest values were recorded for gallic acid (k = 3.66236 ± 0.20776 g beads/mg gallic acid per min), followed by glucose (k = 2.55760 ± 0.16960 g beads/mg glucose per min) and BSA (k = 0.78881 ± 0.11872 g beads/mg BSA per min). The desorption process from alginate hydrogel microcapsules is characterized by the pseudo Fickian diffusion mechanism.

Stabilization of Black Locust Flower Extract via Encapsulation Using Alginate and Alginate-Chitosan Microparticles

Black locust flower extract contains various polyphenols and their glucosides contribute to the potential health benefits. After intake of these bioactive compounds and passage through the gastrointestinal tract, their degradation can occur and lead to a loss of biological activity. To overcome this problem, the bioactive compounds should be protected from environmental conditions. This study aimed to encapsulate the black flower extract in the microparticles based on biodegradable polysaccharides, alginate, and chitosan. In the extract, the total antioxidant content was found to be 3.18 ± 0.01 g gallic acid equivalent per 100 g of dry weight. Also, the presence of lipids (16), phenolics (27), organic acids (4), L-aspartic acid derivative, questinol, gibberellic acid, sterol, and saponins (2) was confirmed using the UHPLC-ESI-MS analysis. In vitro assays showed that the extract has weak anti-α-glucosidase activity and moderate antioxidant and cytotoxic activity against the HeLa cell line. The extrusion method with secondary air flow enabled the preparation of microparticles (about 270 μm) encapsulated with extract. An encapsulation efficiency of over 92% was achieved in the alginate and alginate-chitosan microparticles. The swelling study confirmed a lower permeability of alginate-chitosan microparticles compared with alginate microparticles. For both types of microparticles, the release profile of antioxidants in the simulated gastrointestinal fluids at 37 °C followed the Korsmeyer-Peppas model. A lower diffusion coefficient than 0.5 indicated the simple Fick diffusion of antioxidants. The alginate-chitosan microparticles enabled a more sustained release of antioxidants from extract compared to the alginate microparticles. The obtained results indicated an improvement in the antioxidant activity of bioactive compounds from the extract and their protection from degradation in the simulated gastric conditions via encapsulation in the polymer matrixes. Alginate-chitosan showed slightly slower cumulative antioxidant release from microparticles and better antioxidant activity of the extract compared to the alginate system. According to these results, alginate-chitosan microparticles are more suitable for further application in the encapsulation of black locust flower extract. Also, the proposed polymer matrix as a drug delivery system is safe for human use due to its biodegradability and non-toxicity.

Sequential starch modification by branching enzyme and 4-α-glucanotransferase improves retention of curcumin in starch-alginate beads

A new super-branched amylopectin with longer exterior chains was produced from normal maize starch by modification with branching enzyme followed by 4-α-glucanotransferase, and applied for co-entrapment of a curcumin-loaded emulsion in alginate beads. The network structure of the gel beads was obtained with Ca2+-cross-linked alginate and a modest load of retrograded starch. The dual enzyme modified starch contained more and longer α-1,6-linked branch chains than single enzyme modified and unmodified starches and showed superior resistance to digestive enzymes. Alginate beads with or without starch were of similar size (1.69-1.74 mm), but curcumin retention was improved 1.4-2.8-fold in the presence of different starches. Thus, subjecting the curcumin-loaded beads to in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion resulted in retention of 70, 43 and 22 % of the curcumin entrapped in the presence of modified, unmodified, or no starch, respectively. Molecular docking provided support for curcumin interacting with starch via hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic contacts and π-π stacking. The study highlights the potential of utilizing low concentration of dual-enzyme modified starch with alginate to create a versatile vehicle for controlled release and targeted delivery of bioactive compounds.

Rheology in Product Development: An Insight into 3D Printing of Hydrogels and Aerogels

Rheological characterisation plays a crucial role in developing and optimising advanced materials in the form of hydrogels and aerogels, especially if 3D printing technologies are involved. Applications ranging from tissue engineering to environmental remediation require the fine-tuning of such properties. Nonetheless, their complex rheological behaviour presents unique challenges in additive manufacturing. This review outlines the vital rheological parameters that influence the printability of hydrogel and aerogel inks, emphasising the importance of viscosity, yield stress, and viscoelasticity. Furthermore, the article discusses the latest developments in rheological modifiers and printing techniques that enable precise control over material deposition and resolution in 3D printing. By understanding and manipulating the rheological properties of these materials, researchers can explore new possibilities for applications such as biomedicine or nanotechnology. An optimal 3D printing ink requires strong shear-thinning behaviour for smooth extrusion, forming continuous filaments. Favourable thixotropic properties aid viscosity recovery post-printing, and adequate yield stress and G' are crucial for structural integrity, preventing deformation or collapse in printed objects, and ensuring high-fidelity preservation of shapes. This insight into rheology provides tools for the future of material design and manufacturing in the rapidly evolving field of 3D printing of hydrogels and aerogels.

Fabrication and study on dually modified starch embedded in alginate hydrogel as an encapsulation system for Satureja essential oil

This study aimed to investigate how the types and order of modifications influence the structure and physicochemical characteristics of modified porous starch. The work focuses on the encapsulation of essential oil in hydrophobic microcapsules embedded in sodium alginate hydrogels. FTIR spectra indicated successful esterification of starch with OSA. 1047:1022 cm-1 and 1022:995 cm-1 band ratios of FTIR spectra revealed increased crystallinity due to enzymatic modification, supported by XRD patterns. Porous-OSA (PO) starch had 1.5 times higher degree of substitution (DS) than OSA-porous (OP) starch, confirmed by the intense peak at 0.85 ppm in 1H NMR spectra. SEM images displayed larger particles and smaller pore diameter in OP compared to PO and porous starch, indicating amylolytic enzyme inhibition by OSA. Loading efficiency (LE) showed no significant difference between OP and PO microcapsules (≈70 %), both significantly higher other starch microcapsules. OP and PO microcapsules exhibited sustained release, with enhanced antibacterial activity. Alginate hydrogels preserved about 60 % antioxidant and 90 % antibacterial activities of SEO against 2 h of UV radiation. These findings suggest that the order of modification could not affect the functional properties of final microcapsules. Additionally, the importance of alginate hydrogels as the protective and second wall material was disclosed.

Encapsulation of pomegranate polyphenols by ionic gelation: Strategies for improved retention and controlled release

This study aimed at producing pectin hydrogel beads by ionic gelation proce to carry pomegranate extract (PE) evaluating approaches to increase its retention and protect the polyphenols from environmental conditions that interfere in the stability and color of these compounds, such as the pH of the medium. Several strategies were tested to reduce the mass transfer and consequently increase its retention. The insertion of a filler (gelatinized starch), the employment of different concentrations from the external environment, the adsorption using blank pectin-starch beads, and the electrostatic coating using chitosan were performed. The release of entrapped compounds over time was employed to evaluate the release pattern of PE in water media. Diffusion coefficients calculated from these experiments were then used to estimate the PE release behavior. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) was significantly improved (42 % to 101 %) when equalizing the concentration of the external medium with that from the beads formulation. Furthermore, the increase in the PE concentration was proportional to the rise in the mechanical strength (MS) of the beads which indicates a modification of internal structure due to the presence of polyphenols. The adsorption was efficient in entrapping the active compound, and despite the high PE content observed for all beads (average value of 2960.26 mg of gallic acid equivalent/100 g sample), they had the lowest diffusion coefficient from the release in water media. Finally, the coating was able to reduce the release rate in most of the tests (DAB uncoated = 0.5 DAB coated), however, during the electrostatic deposition a loss of about 32 % of the phenolic compounds in the chitosan solution was observed which led to a reduced EE. Despite the obtention of retarded release, coating studies need to be improved. Some adjustments in the execution of this technique are necessary so that the losses are reduced and the process becomes viable for the use of beads in food.

Construction and In Vitro Digestibility of Recrystallized Starch Encapsulated in Calcium Alginate Beads

In order to reduce the digestion rate of starch in human body and improve the content of slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS), millimeter calcium alginate beads encapsulated with different proportions of recrystallized starch were constructed in this study. First, we prepared recrystallized starch (RS3) by debranching waxy corn starch and retrogradation, and then encapsulated RS3 in calcium alginate beads by the ionic gel method. The microstructure of the beads was observed by scanning electron microscope, and the gel texture properties, swelling properties, and in vitro digestibility of the beads were studied. The results showed that the beads after cooking still maintained high hardness and chewiness, and the swelling power and solubility of the beads were lower than that of native starch. Compared with native starch, the content of rapidly digestible starch (RDS) in beads decreased, while the content of SDS and RS increased. The sample with the highest content of RS is RS3₁@Alginate₁, whose content of RS is 70.10%, 52.11 times higher than that of waxy corn starch and 1.75 times higher than that of RS3. RS3 encapsulated in calcium alginate beads has a good encapsulation effect, and the content of SDS and RS is greatly increased. This study has important implications for reducing the digestion rate of starch and regulating the health of people with diabetes and obesity.

An Edible Biopolymeric Microcapsular Wrapping Integrating Lytic Bacteriophage Particles for Salmonella enterica: Potential for Integration into Poultry Feed

This research work aimed at developing an edible biopolymeric microcapsular wrapping (EBMW) integrating lytic bacteriophage particles for Salmonella enterica, with potential application in poultry feed for biocontrol of that pathogen. This pathogen is known as one of the main microorganisms responsible for contamination in the food industry and in foodstuff. The current techniques for decontamination and pathogen control in the food industry can be very expensive, not very selective, and even outdated, such as the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics that end up selecting resistant bacteria. Hence, there is a need for new technologies for pathogen biocontrol. In this context, bacteriophage-based biocontrol appears as a potential alternative. As a cocktail, both phages were able to significantly reduce the bacterial load after 12 h of treatment, at either multiplicity of infection (MOI) 1 and 10, by 84.3% and 87.6%, respectively. Entrapment of the phage virions within the EBMW matrix did not exert any deleterious effect upon their lytic activity. The results obtained showed high promise for integration in poultry feed aiming at controlling Salmonella enterica, since the edible biopolymeric microcapsular wrapping integrating lytic bacteriophage particles developed was successful in maintaining lytic phage viability while fully stabilizing the phage particles.

Encapsulation of Concentrated Solution Obtained by Block Freeze Concentration in Calcium Alginate and Corn Starch Calcium Alginate Hydrogel Beads

A model (sucrose and gallic acid) solution was concentrated by block freeze concentration (BFC) at three centrifugation cycles, and the solutions were encapsulated in calcium alginate and corn starch calcium alginate hydrogel beads. Static and dynamic tests determined the rheological behavior, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) established thermal and structural properties, and the release kinetics was evaluated under in vitro simulated digestion experiment. The highest efficiency encapsulation value was close to 96%. As the concentrated solution increased in terms of solutes and gallic acid, the solutions were fitted to the Herschel-Bulkley model. Moreover, from the second cycle, the solutions exhibited the highest values of storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G″), contributing to form a more stable encapsulation. The FTIR and DSC results demonstrated strong interactions between corn starch and alginate, establishing a good compatibility and stability in the bead formation. The kinetic release model under in vitro conditions was fitted to the Korsmeyer-Peppas model, demonstrating the significant stability of the model solutions inside the beads. Therefore, the present study proposes a clear and precise definition for the elaboration of liquid foods obtained by BFC and its incorporation inside an edible material that facilitates the controlled release in specific sites.

Collagen hydrolysates improve the efficiency of sodium alginate-encapsulated tea polyphenols in beads and the storage stability after commercial sterilization

This study showed that sodium alginates (SA)-based beads reinforced with collagen hydrolysates (CHs) significantly increased an encapsulation rate of tea polyphenols (TP) from 34.54 % to 85.06 % when the mass ratio of SA: CHs increased from1.5:0 to 1.5:0.5. And after the 30-day storage at 37 °C, the retention rate of TP in beads with CHs at the solutions with pH = 4.0 or pH = 7.0 increased from 61.10 % to 80.21 %, or from 67.72 % to 80.47 % after sterilization at 98 °C or 121 °C for 30 min, respectively. Also, the addition of CHs at 0.5 % resulted in a greater retention of the polyphenolic compositions values of TP determined by UPLC-Orbitrap-MS system. Additionally, the DPPH and ABTS⁺ free-radical scavenging capacities and ferric-reducing antioxidant power of beads with CHs after sterilization at 98 °C or 121 °C for 30 min were significantly higher than which without CHs. Physical phenomena based on ζ-potential, particle size, fluorescence, UV spectroscopy and confocal laser scanning microscope showed that tightly non-covalent complexes of CHs in combination to TP could be uniformly and stably distributed in the network of SA solution for encapsulating TP in SA-based beads. These findings provided suggestions for the co-encapsulation design and development of hydrophilic nutritive compounds based on CHs in SA-based beads.

Polyphenol Release and Antioxidant Activity of the Encapsulated Antioxidant Crude Extract from Cold Brew Spent Coffee Grounds under Simulated Food Processes and an In Vitro Static Gastrointestinal Model

An ionic gelation technique based on an alginate-calcium-based encapsulation process was prepared as the delivery matrix for antioxidant crude extracts from cold brew spent coffee grounds (350 mg/mL). All the encapsulated samples were treated with different simulated food processes, namely pH 3, pH 7, low-temperature long-time (LTLT) pasteurization, and high-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization, to evaluate the stability of the encapsulated matrices. The results showed that alginate (2%, w/v)/maltodextrin (2%, w/v) (CM), and alginate (2%, w/v)/inulin (5%, w/v) (CI) could enhance encapsulation efficiency (89.76 and 85.78%, respectively) and provide lower swelling behavior after being treated using the simulated food processes. Both CM and CI could control the release of antioxidants during the gastric phase (2.28-3.98 and 2.52-4.00%, respectively) and gradual release in the intestinal phase (6.80-11.78 and 4.16-12.72%, respectively) compared to pure alginate (CA). In addition, pasteurization treatment at pH 7.0 produced the highest accumulated release of total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (DPPH) after digestion in the in vitro gastrointestinal system compared to the other simulated food processes. The thermal process resulted in a greater release of compounds from the encapsulated matrix during the gastric phase. On the other hand, the treatment with pH 3.0 resulted in the lowest accumulated release of TPC and DPPH (5.08 and 5.12%, respectively), which indicated phytochemical protection.

Centrifugally spun poly(D,L-lactic acid)-alginate composite microbeads for drug delivery and tissue engineering

This work was based on medium-viscosity alginate as a minor constituent in composites with poly lactic acid (PLA) with the objective to prepare compositional variants through Forcespinning® (FS); for future medical applications. Composites within 0.08-0.25 wt% medium-viscosity alginate were used, at fixed PLA, 6.6 wt%, compared with a study using 0.17-0.48 wt% low-viscosity alginate (same PLA), starting from water-in-oil emulsions, before FS. The presence of alginate is proposed here to influence the high surface tension existing at the emulsion water/oil interface, reducing the total energy at this interface, and/or facilitating the particles in the amphiphilic blend to lie-flat (re-orient) for better fit to the PLA curvature. The study revealed a direct correlation of the inner-phase size (alginate/water ratio), to the change in the morphology and structure of the resultant composites before and after FS. The change in the alginate type, revealed characteristics better suited for medical applications by the medium-viscosity alginate. Composites at alginate- medium-viscosity; ≤0.25 wt%, and low-viscosity; ≤0.48 wt%, had fiber networks interwoven with micro-beads, with characteristics better suited for controlled-release drug delivery applications. Alternatively, each alginate type at 1.1 wt%, composites with PLA at 6.6 wt% could bring about homogenous fibrous materials better suited for wound dressing.

Physicochemical, Structural, and In Vitro Gastrointestinal Tract Release Properties of Sodium Alginate-Based Cryogel Beads Filled with Hydroxypropyl Distarch Phosphate as a Curcumin Delivery System

The objectives of this study were to produce sodium alginate (SA)-based cryogel beads filled with different concentrations (0, 0.4, 1.0, and 2.5%, w/w) of hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate (HDP) as a curcumin delivery system and to investigate the physicochemical, structural, and in vitro gastrointestinal tract release properties of the cryogel beads. According to FT-IR analysis, the formation of ionic crosslinking between SA and Ca²⁺ and the presence of HDP were found. XRD analysis demonstrated the successful encapsulation of curcumin in the beads by observing the disappearance of the characteristic peaks of curcumin. SEM analysis results revelated that SA-based cryogel beads exhibited a denser internal structure as the HDP concentration was increased. The encapsulation efficiency of curcumin in SA cryogel beads filled with HDP concentration from 0% to 2.5% was increased from 31.95% to 76.66%, respectively, indicating that HDP can be a suitable filler for the encapsulation of curcumin in the production of SA-based cryogel beads. After exposure to simulated gastric fluid (SGF) and simulated intestinal fluid (SIF), the release rate of curcumin was decreased as HDP concentration was increased. Accordingly, SA-based cryogel beads filled with HDP can be utilized for the delivery system of curcumin in the food industry.

Encapsulation and sustained release of curcumin by hawthorn pectin and Tenebrio Molitor protein composite hydrogel

In this study, the effects of pH value, mixing ratio and the Ca²⁺ concentration on the complex gelation of hawthorn pectin (HP) and Tenebrio Molitor protein (TMP) were investigated. The turbidity results showed that the composite gel had the maximum polymer concentration when the mixing ratio was 2:1 and the pH value was 3.35. The rheological measurement results showed that TMP/HP (15 mmol/L) hydrogel (THIH) had the highest storage modulus and loss modulus, indicating that the properties of the hydrogel at this Ca²⁺ concentration had been significantly improved. The results of scanning electron microscope and pore size also proved that the network structure prepared under this condition was compact and uniform, the pore size was small, which was beneficial to the entrapment of active components. Subsequently, in order to explore the storage stability and antioxidant activity of THIH-loaded curcumin in simulated gastrointestinal environment, in vitro simulated digestion experiment was carried out and satisfactory results were obtained. To sum up, THIH was a promising delivery system with broad application prospects, which was expected to provide a novel idea for the entrapment and delivery of active components.

Centrifugally spun alginate-poly(lactic acid) microbeads: A promising carrier for drug delivery and tissue engineering

A facile and high yield centrifugal spinning technique known as Forcespinning® (FS) was used to develop unique microstructures consisting of PLA microbeads along alginate fibers. Morphological variation and structural features appeared in the field-emission scanning electron micrographs for the PLA-alginate composites and dried PLA-alginate films from precursor emulsions at constant PLA and varied alginate contents. Shrunk and deflated microbeads were observed for composites whilst spherical beads were evident for the PLA control. Furthermore, PLA was found surrounding the alginate when the alginate was present at 0.24 wt% or lower, while alginate (mushroom-like structures), were seen protruding through the PLA layer at ≥0.34 wt% alginate. Rheological characterization of the composite emulsions revealed that the filler (alginate) provided shear thinning properties including pseudoplasticity, desirable for printing and other related applications in contrast to the Newtonian flow shown by the PLA control. Along with infra-red spectroscopy, the nanocomposites were further characterized using thermal gravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry featuring reversible events influenced by heat capacity and irreversible kinetic/thermodynamic counterparts. The work provides a comprehensive investigation of biocompatible networks of PLA-alginate microbeads embedded in nano-sized fibers and the prospective application of these microbeads as a drug delivery system.

Challenging Sustainable and Innovative Technologies in Cheese Production: A Review

It is well known that cheese yield and quality are affected by animal genetics, milk quality (chemical, physical, and microbiological), production technology, and the type of rennet and dairy cultures used in production. Major differences in the same type of cheese (i.e., hard cheese) are caused by the rennet and dairy cultures, which affect the ripening process. This review aims to explore current technological advancements in animal genetics, methods for the isolation and production of rennet and dairy cultures, along with possible applications of microencapsulation in rennet and dairy culture production, as well as the challenge posed to current dairy technologies by the preservation of biodiversity. Based on the reviewed scientific literature, it can be concluded that innovative approaches and the described techniques can significantly improve cheese production.

Physicochemical and release behaviour of phytochemical compounds based on black jamun pulp extracts-filled alginate hydrogel beads through vibration dripping extrusion

The phytochemical-rich extract obtained from black jamun pulp were encapsulated using vibrating dripping extrusion technique. The utilisation of alginate (AL) with four variations of core-shell material comprising gum Arabic (AL-GA), guar gum (AL-GG), pectin (AL-P) and xanthan gum (AL-X) was engaged to form calcium-alginate based lyophilised jamun extract encapsulated beads. It resulted that among four variations, lyophilised alginate with AL-GG based encapsulated jamun extract filled beads have better physicochemical characteristics and 95% encapsulation efficiency. The results revealed the morphological comparison of each variation. The release behaviour of AL-GG based beads has a higher release of total phenolics (TPC) and total anthocyanin content (TAC). The release kinetics model involving Ritger-Peppas and Higuchi model were applied for release TPC and TAC of all variations of beads. The Ritger-Peppas model was found best suitable in terms of average R² (0.965) and lowest χ² (0.0039). The release kinetics study showed that AL-GA based beads followed by AL-GG could also be the best suitable in release behaviour using simulated gastrointestinal fluids at 140-160 min. Overall, results shown the encapsulated Jamun beads have the best agro-industrial efficacy in form of phytochemical compounds based microparticles, holding decent antioxidant potential.

Effects of cold-renneted and pre-heated milk protein concentrates (MPCs) addition on the properties of alginate composite gels

This study investigated the effects of milk protein concentrate (MPC85) (untreated, cold-renneted, and pre-heated (80 °C, 30 min)) addition on the physical/mechanical properties of sodium alginate (2% w/w) composite gels in millimeter-size (bead) and centrimeter-size gel forms. The gels were characterized for the degree of syneresis, swelling behavior, hardness, stiffness, viscoelastic behavior, and surface morphology of freeze-dried gel. The results showed that the addition of untreated and treated MPCs reduced the hardness, the stiffness and the solid-like behavior of the alginate gels. Untreated MPC and pre-heated MPC caused no effect on syneresis of alginate gels. The addition of cold-renneted MPC reduced the degree of syneresis in composite gels by 13.7%. Similarly, the addition of cold-renneted MPC reduced (by 16.4%) the degree of syneresis of the alginate composite gels after incubation in simulated gastric fluid (SGF). After incubation in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF), the gel containing alginate only swelled while gels containing untreated MPC and pre-heated MPC experienced degradation and a severe mass loss. Meanwhile, the gels containing cold-renneted MPC swelled and at the same time eroded. Moreover, only cold-renneted MPC composite gels showed lower shrinkage and wrinkles on the surface of the beads during lyophilization. Therefore, based on these results, it is indicated that cold-rennet induced gelation method could increase the effectiveness of MPC as a composite material for alginate gels.

Physico-chemical and colloidal properties of protein extracted from black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae

The black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus), has been largely utilized for animal feed. Due to its interesting composition, BSFL has great potential to be further implemented in the human diet. Herein we compared the flour and protein extract composition based on their moisture, ash, amino acids, mineral, and protein content. To have wide knowledge on protein profile and behavior, SDS-page electrophoresis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were used to give information about protein structure and thermal stability, respectively. The flour and protein extract contained respectively 37.3% and 61.1% of protein. DSC graph reported a glass transition temperature around 30 °C, recognizable by a shift in the curve, and an endothermic peak for solid melting at around 200 °C. FTIR analysis showed the main amide bands (A, B, I, II, III) for the flour and protein extract. The foam properties of BSFL protein extract were explored under different temperatures treatment, and the best foam stability was reached at 85 °C with 15 min of treatment. The data highlight the promising techno-functional properties of BSFL protein extract, and that the nutritional composition might be suitable for further use of BSFL as food fortification system.

The Feasibility of Using Pulsed-Vacuum in Stimulating Calcium-Alginate Hydrogel Balls

The effect of the pulsed-vacuum stimulation (PVS) on the external gelation process of calcium-alginate (Ca-Alg) hydrogel balls was studied. The process was conducted at four different working pressures (8, 35, 61, and 101 kPa) for three pulsed-vacuum cycles (one cycle consisted of three repetitions of 10 min of depressurization and 10 min of vacuum liberation). The diffusion coefficients (D) of calcium cations (Ca²⁺) gradually reduced over time and were significantly pronounced (p < 0.05) at the first three hours of the external gelation process. The rate of weight reduction (WR) and rate of volume shrinkage (S_v) varied directly according to the D value of Ca²⁺. A significant linear relationship between WR and S_v was observed for all working pressures (R² > 0.91). An application of a pulsed vacuum at 8 kPa led to the highest weight reduction and shrinkage of Ca-Alg hydrogel samples compared to other working pressures, while 61 kPa seemed to be the best condition. Although all textural characteristics (hardness, breaking deformation, Young’s modulus, and rupture strength) did not directly variate by the level of working pressures, they were likely correlated with the levels of WR and S_v. Scanning electron micrographs (SEM) supported that the working pressure affected the characteristics of Ca-Alg hydrogel structure. Samples stimulated at a working pressure of 8 kPa showed higher deformation with heterogenous structure, large cavities, and looser layer when compared with those at 61 kPa. These results indicate the PVS is a promising technology that can be effectively applied in the external gelation process of Ca-Alg gel.

Tailoring Alginate/Chitosan Microparticles Loaded with Chemical and Biological Agents for Agricultural Application and Production of Value-Added Foods

This work reviews the recent development of biopolymer-based delivery systems for agricultural application. Encapsulation into biopolymer microparticles ensures the protection and targeted delivery of active agents while offering controlled release with higher efficiency and environmental safety for ecological and sustainable plant production. Encapsulation of biological agents provides protection and increases its survivability while providing an environment safe for growth. The application of microparticles loaded with chemical and biological agents presents an innovative way to stimulate plant metabolites synthesis. This enhances plants’ defense against pests and pathogens and results in the production of higher quality food (i.e., higher plant metabolites share). Ionic gelation was presented as a sustainable method in developing biopolymeric microparticles based on the next-generation biopolymers alginate and chitosan. Furthermore, this review highlights the advantages and disadvantages of advanced formulations against conventional ones. The significance of plant metabolites stimulation and their importance in functional food production is also pointed out. This review offers guidelines in developing biopolymeric microparticles loaded with chemical and biological agents and guidelines for the application in plant production, underlining its effect on the plant metabolites synthesis.

NMR Relaxometry and magnetic resonance imaging as tools to determine the emulsifying characteristics of quince seed powder in emulsions and hydrogels

Quince seed powder (QSP) is known to exhibit emulsification properties and could be used as a natural emulsifier in colloidal food systems. In this study, emulsion-based alginate hydrogels were formulated using QSP and xanthan gum (XG) as stabilizers. The objective of the study was to show the emulsifying power of QSP in emulsions and their hydrogels using Time Domain (TD) NMR Relaxometry and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Rheology and mean particle size measurements for emulsions and scanning electron microscope (SEM) experiments for hydrogels were further conducted as complementary methods. QSP containing emulsions were found to have longer T₂ relaxation times than XG samples (p < 0.05). Addition of either QSP or XG produced a more pseudoplastic flow behavior (p < 0.05) on the emulsions. Relaxation times were also obtained by MR images through T₂ maps. Relaxation decay curves showed the presence of two proton compartments in hydrogels; protons associated with the polymer matrix and protons interacting with the oil phase. The contribution of the first proton pools was the largest in QSP hydrogels confirmed by the lowest standard deviation in the T₂ maps. This behavior was explained by the emulsification ability of QSP. Results showed that NMR Relaxometry and MR images could be used to understand the emulsifying nature of QSP and many other hydrocolloids.

Spray Drying for the Encapsulation of Oils-A Review

The application of the spray drying technique in the food industry for the production of a broad range of ingredients has become highly desirable compared to other drying techniques. Recently, the spray drying technique has been applied extensively for the production of functional foods, pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. Encapsulation using spray drying is highly preferred due to economic advantages compared to other encapsulation methods. Encapsulation of oils using the spray drying technique is carried out in order to enhance the handling properties of the products and to improve oxidation stability by protecting the bioactive compounds. Encapsulation of oils involves several parameters-including inlet and outlet temperatures, total solids, and the type of wall materials-that significantly affect the quality of final product. Therefore, this review highlights the application and optimization of the spray drying process for the encapsulation of oils used as food ingredients.

Effects of Starch Incorporation on the Physicochemical Properties and Release Kinetics of Alginate-Based 3D Hydrogel Patches for Topical Delivery

The development of printable hydrogel inks for extrusion-based 3D printing is opening new possibilities to the production of new and/or improved pharmaceutical forms, specifically for topical application. Alginate and starch are natural polysaccharides that have been extensively exploited due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, viscosity properties, low toxicity, and relatively low cost. This research work aimed to study the physicochemical and release kinetic effects of starch incorporation in alginate-based 3D hydrogel patches for topical delivery using a quality by design approach. The incorporation of a pregelatinized starch is also proposed as a way to improve the properties of the drug delivery system while maintaining the desired quality characteristics. Critical material attributes and process parameters were identified, and the sensitivity and adequacy of each parameter were statistically analyzed. The impact of alginate, starch, and CaCl₂·2H₂O amounts on relevant quality attributes was estimated crosswise. The amount of starch revealed a synergetic impact on porosity (p = 0.0021). An evident increase in the size and quantity of open pores were detected in the as printed patches as well as after crosslinking (15.6 ± 5.2 µm). In vitro drug release studies from the optimized alginate-starch 3D hydrogel patch, using the probe Rhodamine B, showed an initial high burst release, followed by a controlled release mechanism. The results obtained also showed that the viscoelastic properties, printing accuracy, gelation time, microstructure, and release rates can be modulated by varying the amount of starch added to the system. Furthermore, these results can be considered an excellent baseline for future drug release modulation strategies.

Formulation, Characterization and Biological Activity Screening of Sodium Alginate-Gum Arabic Nanoparticles Loaded with Curcumin

The approach of drug delivery systems emphasizes the use of nanoparticles as a vehicle, offering the optional property of delivering drugs as a single dose rather than in multiple doses. The current study aims to improve antioxidant and drug release properties of curcumin loaded gum Arabic-sodium alginate nanoparticles (Cur/ALG-GANPs). The Cur/ALG-GANPs were prepared using the ionotropic gelation technique and further subjected to physico-chemical characterization using attenuated total reflectance–Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), size distribution, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The size of Cur/ALG-GANPs ranged between 10 ± 0.3 nm and 190 ± 0.1 nm and the zeta potential was –15 ± 0.2 mV. The antioxidant study of Cur/ALG-GANPs exhibited effective radical scavenging capacity for 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) at concentrations that ranged between 30 and 500µg/mL. Cytotoxicity was performed using MTT assay to measure their potential in inhibiting the cell growth and the result demonstrated a significant anticancer activity of Cur/ALG-GANPs against human liver cancer cells (HepG2) than in colon cancer (HT29), lung cancer (A549) and breast cancer (MCF7) cells. Thus, this study indicates that Cur/ALG-GANPs have promising anticancer properties that might aid in future cancer therapy.

Novel pH-sensitive alginate hydrogel delivery system reinforced with gum tragacanth for intestinal targeting of nutraceuticals

The present study utilizes the novel combination of Gum tragacanth (GT) and sodium alginate (SA) to reinforce SA hydrogel beads. The composite hydrogel beads were encapsulated with phenolic compounds extracted from Basella sps. The rheological studies conferred increased elastic property of GT incorporated formulations. Higher swelling behavior was observed in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) with increasing GT content in SA formulations. SA-GT composite hydrogels revealed increased encapsulation efficiency with sustained release of phenolic compounds in SIF. GT incorporated hydrogel beads exhibited increased biodegradation (up to 82% weight loss) in biodegradation media (in vitro). FTIR study found no molecular interaction between SA and GT. TGA analysis revealed that GT incorporation did not affect the thermal behavior of SA. Furthermore, SA-GT encapsulated hydrogels showed remarkable cytotoxicity against osteosarcoma cells. Thus our findings suggest SA-GT gel formulation could be used as a promising delivery system for drugs and nutraceutical compounds.

Exploring encapsulation strategies as a protective mechanism to avoid amensalism in mixed populations of Pseudomonas taetrolens and Lactobacillus casei

Pseudomonas taetrolens constitutes an efficient platform for the biosynthesis of lactobionic acid, a potentially prebiotic compound. Unfortunately, an amensalistic interaction has been demonstrated between P. taetrolens and probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB), characterized by the competitive exclusion of P. taetrolens, hindering the in situ production of fermented dairy products with synbiotic properties. In the present research, encapsulation was explored as a barrier to the diffusion of the antimicrobial metabolites generated by LAB. Mixed fermentations involving P. taetrolens LMG 2336 and Lactobacillus casei CECT 475 were cultivated, entrapping both microorganisms alternately. Alginate, alginate/starch and carboxymethyl cellulose/k-carrageenan were tested as encapsulating agents. The immobilization of L. casei in 2% alginate/2% starch beads was found to be the best strategy, improving the production of lactobionic acid by 182% with respect to co-cultures with free cells. This study proves the potential of LAB encapsulation for the protection of sensitive strains in mixed food fermentations.

pH-Sensitive Chitosan-Sodium Phytate Core-Shell Hollow Beads and Nanocapsules for the Encapsulation of Active Ingredients

The oral administration of nutraceuticals and vitamins is the most compliant route because of its minimal invasiveness, painlessness, ease of use, and cost effectiveness. To overcome the possible destruction and low availability induced by the harsh gastrointestinal environment, we use sodium phytate as a cross-linker to fabricate pH-sensitive core-shell chitosan hollow beads and nanocapsules through the ionic linking method for the controllable release of active ingredients. Texture profile analysis, transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, and scanning electron microscopy were used to characterize the morphologies and behaviors of the beads and nanocapsules. The size of the beads could be adjusted from 0.1 to 10 mm, and the diameter of the nanocapsules was 50-100 nm. The addition of pectin in sodium phytate remarkably increased the hardness of the chitosan beads. Nile blue A was used as a model active ingredient for loading into the chitosan beads with the maximum encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity of 96.07 ± 2.45% and 9.61 ± 0.29%, respectively. Polyphenols including catechin, epicatechin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, and proanthocyanidin were successfully loaded into the chitosan nanocapsules with an EE of above 90%. The cumulative release of Nile blue A from the beads at pH 1.2 (after 2 h) and pH 6.8 (after 6 h) was less than 20% and more than 80%, respectively. Similarly, the cumulative release of polyphenols in the nanocapsules at pH 1.2 (after 2 h) and pH 6.8 (after 6 h) was less than 30% and more than 70%, respectively. In sum, chitosan-sodium phytate with and without pectin could form pH-responsive macro- and nanoscale carriers suitable for the encapsulation and controlled release of active ingredients.