Molecular structure and digestibility of banana flour and starch

Structural and Physicochemical Characterization of Resistant Starch from Sixteen Banana Cultivars across Three Genome Groups

Banana fruits are rich in starch, and unripe banana flour is considered a beneficial ingredient in the food industry because it has high levels of resistant starch, which significantly aids in promoting gut health and regulating blood sugar and lipid levels. However, the associations between banana cultivars with various genotypes cultivated globally and their resistant starch properties remain unclear. Herein, we investigated resistant starches from 16 banana cultivars covering three genome groups (ABB, AAB, and AAA) in order to reveal the differences and similarities among these cultivars. The results showed that there was a genotype-specific pattern in banana resistant starch (BRS) degradation. The AAA genome BRS exhibited a high degree of resistant starch degradation. The genotypes of the banana cultivars also impacted the granular morphology of the resistant starch. The ABB and AAB genome BRS were more conducive to forming resistant starch. The BRS samples from the three genome groups displayed either B-type or C-type structures. Even within the same genome group, the BRS samples exhibited differences in thermal and pasting properties. These findings reveal the impact of genotypes on BRS content and characteristics, providing a basis for future breeding and resistant starch utilization.

Changes in hemicellulose metabolism in banana peel during fruit development and ripening

Hemicellulose is key in determining the fate of plant cell wall in almost all growth and developmental stages. Nevertheless, there is limited knowledge regarding its involvement in the development and ripening of banana fruit. This study investigated changes in the temporal-spatial distribution of various hemicellulose components, hemicellulose content, activities of the main hydrolysis enzymes, and transcription level of the main hemicellulose-related gene families in banana peels. Both hemicellulose and xylan contents were positively correlated to the fruit firmness observed in our previous study. On the contrary, the xylanase activity was negatively correlated to xylan content and the fruit firmness. The vascular bundle cells, phloem, and cortex of bananas are abundant in xyloglucan, xylan, and mannan contents. Interestingly, the changes in the signal intensity of the CCRC-M104 antibody recognizing non-XXXG type xyloglucan are positively correlated to hemicellulose content. According to RNA-Seq analysis, xyloglucan and xylan-related genes were highly active in the early stages of growth, and the expression of MaMANs and MaXYNs increased as the fruit ripened. The abundance of plant hormonal and growth-responsive cis-acting elements was detected in the 2 kb upstream region of hemicellulose-related gene families. Interaction between hemicellulose and cell wall-specific proteins and MaKCBP1/2, MaCKG1, and MaHKL1 was found. The findings shed light on cell wall hemicellulose's role in banana fruit development and ripening, which could improve nutrition, flavor, and reduce postharvest fruit losses.

The multifactorial phenomenon of enzymatic hydrolysis resistance in unripe banana flour and its starch: A concise review

Unripe banana flour starch possesses a high degree of resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis, a unique and desirable property that could be exploited in the development of functional food products to regulate blood sugar levels and promote digestive health. However, due to a multifactorial phenomenon in the banana flour matrix-from the molecular to the micro level-there is no consensus regarding the complex mechanisms behind the slow enzymatic hydrolysis of unripe banana flour starch. This work therefore explores factors that influence the enzymatic hydrolysis resistance of raw and modified banana flour and its starch including the proportion and distribution of the amorphous and crystalline phases of the starch granules; granule morphology; amylose-amylopectin ratio; as well as the presence of nonstarch components such as proteins, lipids, and phenolic compounds. Our findings revealed that the relative contributions of these factors to banana starch hydrolytic resistance are apparently dependent on the native or processed state of the starch as well as the cultivar type. The interrelatability of these factors in ensuring amylolytic resistance of unripe banana flour starch was further highlighted as another reason for the multifactorial phenomenon. Knowledge of these factors and their contributions to enzymatic hydrolysis resistance individually and interconnectedly will provide insights into enhanced ways of extraction, processing, and utilization of unripe banana flour and its starch.

Ultrasound-assisted annealing treatment to improve physicochemical and digestive properties of banana flour

BACKGROUND

Banana flour can provide a solution to people with gluten intolerance, as it is gluten-free. Native banana flour may have limited functionality in certain applications. In this study, banana flour was modified by ultrasonic (US) and annealing (ANN) treatments at four incubation time spans, namely 12, 24, 36 and 72 h, separately or combined sequentially (US-ANN) to enhance the physicochemical and digestive properties.

RESULTS

US led to exposed granular surfaces and damaged non-starch components. Both treatments, at extended incubation time, increased crystallinity, resulting in a narrower starch gelatinization temperature range. The swelling power was significantly lower for ANN and US-ANN compared to US alone, providing a delay of gelatinization temperature. However, none of the treatments affected the gelatinization enthalpy. Furthermore, US increased peak viscosity, breakdown, final viscosity and setback whereas the opposite results were obtained for ANN and US-ANN. Additionally, US prior to ANN significantly increased the resistant starch (RS) content for annealing times over 24 h, especially for the US-ANN treatment for 72 h, which provided the highest RS content (49.3%) compared to ANN treatment for 72 h (44.0%) and native flour (36.3%).

CONCLUSIONS

US prior to ANN treatment offers an alternative method to improve the functional and digestive properties of banana flour, extending the range of applications. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Green banana resistant starch: A promising potential as functional ingredient against certain maladies

This review covers the significance of green banana resistant starch (RS), a substantial polysaccharide. The food industry has taken an interest in green banana flour due to its 30% availability of resistant starch and its approximately 70% starch content on a dry basis, making its use suitable for food formulations where starch serves as the base. A variety of processing techniques, such as heat-moisture, autoclaving, microwaving, high hydrostatic pressure, extrusion, ultrasound, acid hydrolysis, and enzymatic debranching treatments, have made significant advancements in the preparation of resistant starch. These advancements aim to change the structure, techno-functionality, and subsequently the physiological functions of the resistant starch. Green bananas make up the highest RS as compared to other foods and cereals. Many food processing industries and cuisines now have a positive awareness due to the functional characteristics of green bananas, such as their pasting, thermal, gelatinization, foaming, and textural characteristics. It is also found useful for controlling the rates of cancer, obesity, and diabetic disorders. Moreover, the use of GBRS as prebiotics and probiotics might be significantly proved good for gut health. This study aimed at the awareness of the composition, extraction and application of the green banana resistant starch in the future food products.

The multi-scale structures and in vitro digestibility of starches with different crystalline types induced by dielectric barrier discharge plasma

The effects of plasma treatment on multi-scale structures and in vitro digestibility of starches isolated from Tartary buckwheat (TBS), potato (PTS), and pea (PS), were investigated. The results from SEM and CLSM showed that plasma treatment resulted in the extension of pores from the starch hilum to the surface. The XRD and 13C CP/MAS NMR spectra demonstrated that the crystalline type of three starches was not changed by plasma treatment, while the RC and double helix content of TBS increased. Besides, the single helix content and the proportion of amorphous phase decreased following the treatment, which was consistent with the result of SAXS. However, the PTS and PS showed the opposite results by plasma treatment. In addition, the modification significantly changed the molecular weight (Mw) and chain length distribution of all the starches, among which the Mw of PTS fell drastically from 2.45 × 107 g/mol to 1.74 × 107 g/mol. The in vitro digestibility of starches increased significantly when treated with plasma, in which TBS exhibited the biggest increase for its inside-out and side-by-side digestion manners. Therefore, plasma treatment led to different alteration trends for multi-scale structures with quite various change extent for in vitro digestibility about different crystalline starches.

Effect of solution on starch structure: New separation approach of amylopectin fraction from gelatinized native corn starch

The complete dissolution of starch without degradation are necessary prerequisites for starch fractionation to obtain amylose or amylopectin (AP). With the recent, continuous progress in finding efficient and eco-friendly starch-dissolving solutions, applying new solvents for starch fractionation is important. In this study, the effects of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), NaOH, and CaCl2 solutions on starch structure and AP product parameters during starch fractionation were compared with respect to the starch deconstruction effect. This study proved that the CaCl2 solution could effectively dissolve corn starch (50 °C, solubility of 98.96 %), and promote the regeneration of starch into uniform and fine particles. Furthermore, the three solvents (DMSO, NaOH, and CaCl2) changed the crystal structure of corn starch, but they were all non-derivatizing solvents. The effect of the CaCl2 solution on the molecular structure of corn starch was the least significant of the three solvents. Finally, the extraction rate of AP from the CaCl2 solution reached 69.45 %. In conclusion, this study presents a novel and effective method for AP extraction.

Dielectric barrier discharge cold plasma modifies the multiscale structure and functional properties of banana starch

Banana starch has attracted significant attention due to its abundant content of resistant starch. This study aims to compare the multiscale structure and functional properties of banana starch obtained from five cultivated varieties and investigate the impact of dielectric barrier discharge cold plasma (DBD) treatment on these starch characteristics. All five types of natural banana starch exhibited an elliptical and irregular shape, conforming to the CB crystal structure, with a bimodal distribution of branch chain lengths. The resistant starch content ranged from 88.9 % to 94.1 %. Variations in the amylose content, amylopectin branch chain length distribution, and structural characteristics resulted in differences in properties such as gelatinization behavior and sensitivity to DBD treatment. The DBD treatment inflicted surface damage on starch granules, reduced the amylose content, shortened the amylopectin branch chain length, and changed the relative crystallinity to varying degrees. The DBD treatment significantly increased starch solubility and light transmittance. Simultaneously, it resulted in a noteworthy decrease in peak viscosity and gelatinization enthalpy of starch paste. The in vitro digestibility test showed that 76.2 %-86.5 % of resistant starch was retained after DBD treatment. The DBD treatment renders banana starch with reduced viscosity, increased paste transparency, enhanced solubility, and broadens its potential application.

Impact of starch chain length distributions on physicochemical properties and digestibility of starches

Changing starch structure at different levels is a promising approach to promote desirable metabolic responses. Chain length distribution (CLD) is among the starch structural characteristics having a potential to determine properties of starch-based products. Therefore, the objective of the current review is to summarize recent findings on CLD and its impact on physicochemical properties and digestion. Investigations undertaken to enhance understanding of starch structure have shown clearly that CLD is a significant determining factor in modulating starch digestibility. Enzymatic modifications and processing treatments alter the CLD of starch, which in turn affects the rate of digestion, but the underlying molecular mechanisms have yet to be fully elucidated. Even though advances have been made in manipulating CLD using different methods and to correlate the changes with various functional properties, in general the area needs further investigations to open new awareness for enhancing healthiness of starchy foods.

Optimization and analysis of dual-enzymatic synthesis for the production of linear glucan

Linear α-glucan (LG), a linear polymer linked by α-1,4 bonds, has received increasing attention for its potential applications in synthetic polymer production. Notably, the functionality of LG is strongly influenced by its degree of polymerization (DP). In this study, SP and GP were successfully constructed and expressed. The reaction of enzymatic co-polymerization into LG was investigated. The preferred reaction was carried out at 37 °C and pH 7.4 for 72 h, with a maximum conversion rate of 25 %. Afterwards, two approaches were used to modulate the molecular structures of LGs. Firstly, LGs with distinct molecular weights ranging from 1062.33 ± 16.04 g/mol to 5679 ± 80.29 g/mol were obtained by adjusting the substrate/primer ratio during the LG synthesis process. Secondly, two distinct products could be produced by altering the enzyme addition method: short-chain LG with a DP < 10 (64.34 ± 0.54 %) or long-chain LG with a DP > 45 (45.57 ± 2.18 %). Additionally, theoretical synthesis model was constructed which subdivided the reaction into three stages to evaluate this dual-enzyme cooperative system. These findings have significant implications in promoting the application of LG in the fields of biomedicine and material science.

Low glycemic index noodle and pasta: Cereal type, ingredient, and processing

The consumption of noodles with a high glycemic index (GI) can affect health, prompting the need for dietary adjustments to manage abnormal blood glucose levels. This review delves into recent progress in low GI noodles and their potential effect for human well-being. Diverse approaches, encompassing the incorporation of soluble dietary fiber, modified starches, proteins, and plant polyphenols, have shown encouraging outcomes in diminishing the GI of noodles. Furthermore, variations in processing, storage, and cooking techniques can influence the GI of noodles, yielding both positive and negative impacts on their glycemic response. Soluble dietary fiber, protein cross-linkers, and plant polyphenols play a pivotal role in reducing the GI of noodles by hindering the interaction between digestive enzymes and starch, thereby curbing enzymatic activity. Future research spotlighting ingredients, processing methodologies, and the underlying mechanisms of low GI noodles will contribute substantively to the development of functional foods boosting enhanced nutritional profiles.

Characterization of green banana starch from "Songkibab" species cultivated in the southern part of Korea

Resistant starch (RS) has advantages for regulating the colon health as prebiotics and dietary fibers, and green banana has interested due to containing high amounts of RS. Here, the structural, physicochemical, and digestible characteristics of green banana starch from newly bred Songkibab (SB) were determined to evaluate its suitability for application as a new crop in response to global warming and for obtaining genetic diversity. SB starch has structural similarities to the Cavendish (CD) banana, which is widely consumed in Southeast Asia, in its ratio of B3-chains (in high amounts), flattened shapes of smooth surfaces, and B-type crystallinity. Physiochemically, SB shows comparable swelling power, amylose content, and viscosity pattern but a higher RS content. Conclusively, this study suggests that SB banana may be a good resource for replacing CD species with novel varieties in East Asia because of the high degree of similarity in the various characteristics.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-023-01331-z.

Exploring the effects of enzymatic and thermal treatments on banana starch characteristics

Banana starch has a highly resistant starch (RS) and slow-digested starch (SDS) content, making it attractive as a functional ingredient. Unfortunately, banana starch requires modification processes due to the loss of RS and SDS during gelatinization because of its thermolabile characteristics. This study explores the effect of banana starch modification by enzymatic, heat moisture treatment (HMT) and dual modification (HMT+ enzymatic) on its nutritional (RS, SDS) and functional properties (hydration, structural, gelation, rheological). HMT and dual modifications decrease RS (from 44.62 g/100 g to 16.62 and 26.66 g/100 g, respectively) and increase SDS (from 21.72 g/100 g to 33.91 and 26.95 g/100 g, respectively) in raw starch but induce structural changes that enhance RS (from 3.10 g/100 g to 3.94 and 4.4 g/100 g, respectively) and SDS (from 2.58 g/100 g to 9.58 and 11.48 g/100 g) thermo-resistance in gelled starch. Also, changes in the functional properties of starches were evidenced, such as weaker gels (hardness < 41 g), lower water absorption (<12.35 g/g), high starch solubility (>1.77 g/100 g) and increased gelatinization temperature. Improved gelatinization temperature and RS thermostability resulted from modifications that could expand banana starch applications as a beverage and compote thickener agent.

Study of unripe and inferior banana flours pre-gelatinized by four different physical methods

This study aimed to prepare the pre-gelatinized banana flours and compare the effects of four physical treatment methods (autoclaving, microwave, ultrasound, and heat-moisture) on the digestive and structural characteristics of unripe and inferior banana flours. After the four physical treatments, the resistant starch (RS) content values of unripe and inferior banana flours were decreased from 96.85% (RS2) to 28.99-48.37% (RS2 + RS3), while C∞ and k values were increased from 5.90% and 0.039 min^-1 to 56.22-74.58% and 0.040-0.059 min^-1, respectively. The gelatinization enthalpy (ΔHg) and I_1047/1022 ratio (short-range ordered crystalline structures) were decreased from 15.19 J/g and 1.0139 to 12.01-13.72 J/g, 0.9275-0.9811, respectively. The relative crystallinity decreased from 36.25% to 21.69-26.30%, and the XRD patterns of ultrasound (UT) and heat-moisture (HMT) treatment flours maintained the C-type, but those samples pre-gelatinized by autoclave (AT) and microwave (MT) treatment were changed to C + V-type, and heat-moisture (HMT) treatment was changed to A-type. The surface of pre-gelatinized samples was rough, and MT and HMT showed large amorphous holes. The above changes in structure further confirmed the results of digestibility. According to the experimental results, UT was more suitable for processing unripe and inferior banana flours as UT had a higher RS content and thermal gelatinization temperatures, a lower degree and rate of hydrolysis, and a more crystalline structure. The study can provide a theoretical basis for developing and utilizing unripe and inferior banana flours.

Effect of the Amylose Nanoscale Polymerization Index on the Digestion Kinetics and Mechanism of Recombinant Chinese Seedless Breadfruit Starch Triadic Complexes

The demand for multicomponent foods to meet human energy and nutritional needs has been increasing; however, few studies have addressed the theoretical basis for their preparation. We investigated the effect of the nanoscale polymerization index (DPw) of amylose on the logarithm of slope plot-based kinetics and the mechanism of digestion of starch-lauric acid-β-lactoglobulin protein complexes. Amylose from each of the five Chinese seedless breadfruit species was mixed with breadfruit amylopectin with the highest resistant starch (RS) content to form starch ternary complexes with various amylose DPws. All five complexes exhibited V-type crystalline diffraction and rod-like molecular configuration. Characteristic X-ray diffraction peaks and Fourier transform-infrared spectra of the ternary complexes revealed similar molecular configurations. As the amylose DPw increased, the complexing index, relative crystallinity, short-range order, weight-average molar mass, molecular density index, gelatinization temperature, decomposition temperature, RS, slowly digestible starch (SDS), and speed rate constants at the second hydrolysis stage (k₂) increased, whereas the semicrystalline lamellae thickness, mass fractal structure parameter, average characteristic crystallite unit length, radius of gyration, fractal dimension and cavities of granule surface microstructure, final viscosity, interval speed rate from SDS to RS, equilibrium concentration, and glycemic index decreased. The digestion kinetics exhibited highly significant variation according to the physiochemical properties and multiscale supramolecular structure (r > 0.99 or r < -0.99, p < 0.01). Together, these results identify amylose DPw as an important structural factor that markedly affects the kinetics and mechanism of ternary complex digestion and provide a new theoretical direction for the production of starch-based multicomponent foods.

The relationship between molecular structure and film-forming properties of thermoplastic starches from different botanical sources

To illustrate the correlations between molecular structures and the film-forming properties of thermoplastic starch from various botanical sources, starches from cereal, tuber and legume were modified by thermoplastic extrusion and the corresponding thermoplastic starch films were prepared including thermoplastic corn starch (TCS), thermoplastic rice starch (TRS), thermoplastic sweet potato starch (TSPS), thermoplastic cassava starch (TCAS) and thermoplastic pea starch (TPES) films. TPES film displayed a higher tensile strength (6.28 MPa) and stronger water resistance, such as lower water solubility (15.70 %), water absorption (42.35 %), and water vapor permeability (0.285 g·mm·h-1·m-2·kPa-1) due to higher contents of amylose and B1 chains. TCAS showed a smoother and more amorphous film due to higher amylopectin content, resulting higher elongation at break and larger opacity. TCS film was the most transparent due to a compacter network and more ordered crystallinity structure, which was suit for the packaging of fresh vegetables and aquatic products, whereas TCAS film was the opaquest, which protected package foods from light such as meat products, etc. The outcome would provide an innovative theory to regulate accurately the functional properties of thermoplastic starch films for different food needs.

A study of starch resources with high-amylose content from five Chinese mutant banana species

Investigation on staple crop starch of new species has been becoming the research focus of scholars at present. Based on this, the physicochemical properties and microstructural characteristics of starches isolated from Chinese mutant Musa acuminata Colla acuminata and double balbisiana (MA), Musa double acuminata cv. Pisang Mas (MAM), Musa acuminata cv. Pisang Awak (MAA), and Musa Basjoo Siebold (MBS), and Musa double acuminata and balbisiana-Prata (MAP) were investigated. Results exhibited that all starches exhibited high content of amylose (34.04-42.59%). According to the particle size, they were divided into medium (MA, MAM) (14.54-17.71 μm) and large (MAA, MBS, MAP) (23.01-23.82 μm) group. The medium group with A-type crystallization showed higher peak viscosity (PV), final viscosity, gel fracturability and gel hardness. For large group with B-type crystallization, the compact particle morphology, higher degree of crystallinity, short range order, gelatinization enthalpy, pasting temperature, lower porosity, water absorption capacity (WAC) and oil absorption capacity were found. In addition, the medium group with higher PV and gel hardness could be used as food thickening or gelling agents. The large group with higher Rc, short-range order, lower porosity and WAC could be potential to become raw material for resistant starch. All results showed the amylose content, had significant effect on the microstructure and physicochemical properties of starch samples. Outcomes in this investigation might provide a basis of theoretical application for industrial food production.

Mechanistic Understanding of the Effects of Pectin on In Vivo Starch Digestion: A Review

Obesity and type II diabetes are closely related to the rapid digestion of starch. Starch is the major food-energy source for most humans, and thus knowledge about the regulation of starch digestion can contribute to prevention and improved treatment of carbohydrate metabolic disorders such as diabetes. Pectins are plant polysaccharides with complex molecular structures and ubiquitous presence in food, and have diverse effects on starch digestion. Pectins can favorably regulate in vivo starch digestion and blood glucose level responses, and these effects are attributed to several reasons: increasing the viscosity of digesta, inhibiting amylase activity, and regulating some in vivo physiological responses. Pectins can influence starch digestion via multiple mechanisms simultaneously, in ways that are highly structure-dependent. Utilizing the multi-functionalities of pectin could provide more ways to design low glycemic-response food and while avoiding the unpalatable high viscosity in food by which is commonly caused by many other dietary fibers.

Optimization of ultrasound-assisted enzymatic extraction of resistant starch from green banana peels and its structural characterization

The global consumption of a large quantity of banana generates a huge quantity of banana peels which creates the problem of its disposal and proper management. The utilization of banana peels for the extraction of resistant starch can be a valuable strategy of waste valorization with economic viability at the industrial level. Green techniques like ultrasound can be efficacious in terms of increasing the extraction efficiency and yield of resistant starch. In this study, ultrasound assisted enzymatic extraction of resistant starch was optimized using response surface methodology. The optimum yield (60.6%) of resistant starch was obtained at 35 °C temperature, 30:1 liquid to solid ratio after a treatment time of 9 min. The results showed that a combination of ultrasound treatment with enzymatic extraction of resistant starch can be an efficient approach for the valorization of banana peels. Resistant starch holds application as a valuable supplement in functional food development in the fields of dairy, bakery, beverages, etc.

Structural, physicochemical and rheological properties of starches isolated from banana varieties (Musa spp.)

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High starch content in green banana can be extracted for industry and avoid waste.

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Banana starch from Tanzania was rich in amylose and resistant starch.

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Banana starch paste presented great structural stability.

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Banana starch had potential to produce edible films and replace chemical binder.

Banana starches were isolated from five banana varieties in Tanzania to analyze the proximate composition, structure, physicochemical and rheological properties. The amylose content of banana starches was 29.92 ± 0.17 %–39.50 ± 0.08 % and the resistant starch content of cooked banana starches ranged from 44.74 ± 1.72 % to 55.43 ± 1.52 %. Banana starch granules presented irregular shapes with particle size of 21.73 to 24.67 μm and showed B-type or C-type crystalline patterns with crystallinity of 36.69 % to 41.83 %. The solubility and the swelling power were 2.5 ± 0.42 %–4.4 ± 0.57 % and 11.27 ± 0.04 %–12.48 ± 0.71 %, respectively. Mzuzu and Malindi starches possessed lower gelatinization temperature. The high gelatinization peak viscosity (2248 ± 67–2897 ± 71 cP), low breakdown (556 ± 7–960 ± 41 cP) and low setback (583 ± 29–864 ± 118 cP) indicated banana starch could replace chemically cross-linked starch for applications that require stable viscosity. The rheological analysis showed that banana starches exhibited shear thinning behavior and had great processing adaptability. The results all above will provide basic data for the development and utilization of banana starch.

Analysis of starch structure and functional properties of tetraploid wheat (Triticum turgidum L.) with differing waxy protein composition

BACKGROUND

An increased demand for food has mirrored the increasing global population. Obesity and diabetes are two disorders induced by poor eating choices. Consequently, there is an urgent need to develop modified foods that can ameliorate such illnesses. The objective of this study was to explore the effect of Waxy genes on the structural and functional properties of starch, with the aim of improving food quality. Wild-type tetraploid wheat was compared with three mutants with different Waxy gene combinations.

RESULTS

The proportion of B-type granules was higher in the mutants than in the wild-type (Wx-AB), and there were significant changes in the starch granule size, number, and phenotype in the Wx free mutant (Wx-ab). The lowest branch chain length was observed in Wx-ab, whereas Wx-AB had the highest branch chain length of DP ≥ 37. Wx-ab had the highest degree of crystallinity. The crystallinity trend followed the order Wx-ab>Wx-Ab>Wx-aB>Wx-AB. The amount of slowly digestible starch (SDS) was higher in native, gelatinized, and retrograded starch in the mutant. The amount of retrograded starch was closer to gelatinized starch than to native starch.

CONCLUSION

Waxy proteins make a substantial contribution to starch structure. A lack of waxy proteins reduced the unit chains markedly compared with the control. Waxy proteins significantly affected the smaller and longer chains of starch. The lines with differing waxy composition had different effects on food digestion. The Wx-AB in native starch and Wx-Ab in gelatinized starch can control obesity and diabetes by slow-digesting carbohydrates and high resistance to digestion. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of new type extrusion modification technology on supramolecular structure and in vitro glycemic release characteristics of starches with various estimated glycemic indices

Nowadays, the highly effective modified technology to starch with various digestibility is gaining interest in food science. Here, the interactions between glycemic release characteristics and fine supramolecular structure of cassava (ECS), potato (EPS), jackfruit seed (EJFSS), maize (EMS), wheat (EWS), and rice starches (ERS) prepared with improved extrusion modification technology (IEMS) were investigated. The crystalline structures of all extruded cooking starches changed from the A-type to V-type. IEMS-treated cassava, potato, and rice starches had broken α-1.6-glycosidic amylopectin (long chains). The others sheared α-1.4-glycosidic amylopectin. The molecular weight, medium and long chain counts, and relative crystallinity decreased, whereas the number of amylopectin short chains increased. The glycemic index (GI) and digestive speed rate constant (k) of ECS, EPS, EJFSS, and EWS were improved compared to those of raw starch. Although EMS and ERS had degraded molecular structures, their particle morphology changed from looser polyhedral to more compact with less enzymolysis channels due to the rearrangement of side chain clusters of amylopectin, leading to enzyme resistance. The starch characteristics of IEMS-treated samples significantly differed. EPS had the highest amylose content, medium chains, long chains, and molecular weight but lowest GI, relative crystallinity, and k. ERS showed the opposite results. Thus, IEMS may affect starches with different GIs to varying degrees. In this investigation, we provide a basis for wider applications of conventional crop starch in the food industry corresponding to different nutrition audience.

The Properties, Modification, and Application of Banana Starch

Banana is a tropical fruit crop that is consumed at large, not only because of the quantity produced but also because it serves the calorific needs of millions of people. Banana is a potential source of high starch content (more than 60%). The application of starch for various purposes is dependent upon its structural, physicochemical, and functional properties. A native starch does not possess all required properties for specific use in the food product. To improve its application, starch can be modified physically, chemically, and enzymatically. Each of these modification methods provides different characteristics to the modified starch. This review aims to examine the chemical composition, granule morphology, crystallinity, pasting, thermal properties, and digestibility of banana starch, and discusses the various modifications and potential applications of banana starch in the food industry.

Cassava and banana starch modified with maleic anhydride-poly (ethylene glycol) methyl ether (Ma-mPEG): A comparative study of their physicochemical properties as coatings

This study proposes a simple route to obtain starch grafted copolymers from cassava and banana starches chemically modified with amphiphilic maleic anhydride-poly (ethylene glycol) methyl ether (Ma-mPEG). The starches were extracted from cassava (StC) and banana (StB) pulp and characterized by FTIR spectroscopy, amylose content, scanning electron microscope (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and average molecular weight. Starches were chemically modified with amphiphilic Ma-mPEG in three mass ratios 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3. Thermal behavior and interactions of Ma-mPEG/starch in the St-g-(Ma-mPEG) copolymers were studied by DSC and TGA. The T_g values showed a higher plasticizer effect in the copolymers obtained from StC. Films were formed from StC-g-(Ma-mPEG) and StB-g-(Ma-mPEG) copolymers, thermal and morphological properties were studied. An increase in the mass ratios of Ma-mPEG and the absence of the glycerol in the formulations formed homogeneous films. StC-g-(Ma-mPEG) 1:3 with 2% concentration showed a potential use as coating in strawberries, presenting a lower weight loss (15.5 ± 5.7%) than the control sample (18.6 ± 3.3%).

Effect of a novel shell material-Starch-protein-fatty acid ternary nanoparticles on loading levels and in vitro release of curcumin

Preparation of ternary nanoparticles using high amylose complex, stearic acid, and soy protein isolate as shell materials and their encapsulation of curcumin were studied. The effect of curcumin in ternary nanostructures, loading capacity of the nanoparticles, its solubility and sustained release behavior in vitro are discussed. The encapsulation efficiency of the ternary nanoparticles was 87.14 ± 0.70%, and the loading rate was 16.81 μg/g. Qualitative analysis showed that curcumin addition increases the long-range and short-range ordered structure of ternary starch (TS) by changing its crystallinity. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that curcumin-TS is formed via hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic properties of the protein. An in vitro release test showed that TS particles can control the stable release of curcumin in simulated intestinal fluid. Our study provided a novel approach to high biomass encapsulation and sustained release of polyphenols.

Physicochemical and Morphological Characteristics of Starch and Flour Obtained from Green Banana cv. Raja (Musa paradisiaca cv. Raja) in West Sumatra, Indonesia

&lt;b&gt;Background and Objective:&lt;/b&gt; Banana cv. &lt;i&gt;Raja&lt;/i&gt; is widely cultivated in West Sumatra, Indonesia. The physicochemical properties of starch and flour were investigated to determine their functional food prospects in industrial food. &lt;b&gt;Materials and Methods:&lt;/b&gt; Starch and flour of banana cv. &lt;i&gt;Raja&lt;/i&gt; was characterized using proximate analysis, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier-Transform Infrared (FT-IR), X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Rapid Visco-Analyzer (RVA). &lt;b&gt;Results:&lt;/b&gt; Banana cv. &lt;i&gt;Raja&lt;/i&gt; starch contains 40.73% starch, 17.49% amylose, 55.5% water, 0.66% ash, 0.83% protein and 0.18% fat. The size of the granules is ranging from 20-30 μm in irregular and ellipsoidal-truncated shapes. The structure of crystallinity belongs to the type B while the gelatinization temperature is 74.9°C. Furthermore, the starch composed of 41.06% potassium, 12.85% phosphorus, 12.74% iron, 9.4% calcium and 7.5% magnesium. &lt;b&gt;Conclusion:&lt;/b&gt; The morphological and physicochemical starch characteristics of Banana cv. &lt;i&gt;Raja&lt;/i&gt; and has similar characteristics with its flour. Meanwhile the swelling power and the solubility value of the flour were higher than the starch. The gelatinization temperatures of starch and flour were 74.9 and 73.4°C, respectively.

Saccharification of unripe banana flour using microwave assisted starch degrading enzyme hydrolysis for development of wine and vinegar fermentations

Unripe banana flour (UBF) from Musa (ABB) ‘Kluai Namwa’ was used as the substrate for sugar syrup production by microwave assisted starch degrading enzyme hydrolysis. Results showed that a concentration of 300 g/L of UBF subjected to 800 W microwave power for 2.0 min, with subsequent hydrolysis by a low temperature amylase (iKnowZyme® LTAA) and glucoamylase (iKnowZyme® GA) at 50°C for 9 h yielded highest sugar syrup production at 20 ± 0.89 °Brix of total soluble solids (TSS). The major hydrolysis product from UBF determined by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was glucose, with reduced amounts of maltose and maltotriose. Fermentation by mixed strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae produced alcohol content at 13.2 ± 0.07% (w/v) after 10 d at room temperature. Acetic acid fermentation achieved using Acetobacter aceti TISTR 354 by surface culture fermentation (SCF) in a stainless-steel tray chamber yielded 5.10 ± 0.12% (v/v) after cultivation at room temperature for 9 d, corresponding to standard commercial vinegar products at over 4.0%. This is the first report detailing production of sugar syrup, wine, and vinegar from UBF, using microwave assisted starch degrading enzyme hydrolysis at 50°C. Results showed that producing an alternative healthy products from natural material could be feasible with added value through biotechnological processes.

A Novel Banana Mutant "RF 1" (Musa spp. ABB, Pisang Awak Subgroup) for Improved Agronomic Traits and Enhanced Cold Tolerance and Disease Resistance

Banana is a major fruit crop grown in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Among cultivars, "FenJiao, FJ" (Musa spp. ABB, Pisang Awak subgroup) is a popular variety of bananas, due to its better sugar-acid blend and relatively small fruit shape. However, because the traditional FJ variety grows relatively high in height, it is vulnerable to lodging and unsuitable for harvesting. In this study, we sought desirable banana mutants by carrying out ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) mutagenesis with the FJ cultivar. After the FJ shoot tips had been treated with 0.8% (v/v) EMS for 4 h, we obtained a stably inherited mutant, here called "ReFen 1" (RF1), and also observed a semi-dwarfing phenotype. Compared with the wild type (FJ), this RF1 mutant featured consistently improved agronomic traits during 5-year field experiments conducted in three distinct locations in China. Notably, the RF1 plants showed significantly enhanced cold tolerance and Sigatoka disease resistance, mainly due to a substantially increased soluble content of sugar and greater starch accumulation along with reduced cellulose deposition. Therefore, this study not only demonstrated how a powerful genetic strategy can be used in fruit crop breeding but also provided insight into the identification of novel genes for agronomic trait improvement in bananas and beyond.

Structural Features and Digestibility of Corn Starch With Different Amylose Content

In this study, the in vitro digestibility of corn starch with different amylose content was determined. The results showed that waxy corn starch (WCS) and corn starch (CS) have the highest digestibility, while high amylose corn starch (HACS) has a higher content of resistant starch (RS). Besides being related to amylose content, RS content is also closely related to particle shape, debranched fine structure, molecular structure, and semi-crystalline structure. HACS can maintain a complete particle structure after gelatinization and enzymolysis; differential scanning calorimetry showed a positive correlation between gelatinization enthalpy and RS content. As the amylose content increased, the content of fa (DP 6–12) decreased, while the content of fb2 (DP 25–36) and fb3 (DP ≥ 37) increased, which in-turn decreased the cluster polymer formed by short branch chains, and the formation of more hydrogen bonds between long chain branches improved starch stability. D, which characterizes the compactness of starch semi-crystalline structure, increased with the increase of RS content. HACS 60 with the highest RS content had a unique surface fractal structure between 7.41 < d (2π/q) < 10.58 nm, indicating that the dense structure is effective in maintaining the RS content.

Underutilized Green Banana (Musa acuminata AAA) Flours to Develop Fiber Enriched Frankfurter-Type Sausages

This study aimed to develop a fiber-enriched Frankfurter-type sausage by incorporating underutilized green banana flours as a meat extender, replacing wheat flour with banana flours (8%). A low-fat formulation substituting 12% pork fat with 24% banana peel flour was also studied. Sausages were stored at 4 °C/15 days. Cooking loss was low (5.6–4.1%) in all formulations and the substitution of wheat flour with banana flour did not modify moisture and protein composition, while carbohydrate, fiber, and ashes varied with the flour composition. In the low-fat sausages, fiber carbohydrate and ashes increased the most. Texture and color parameters were very similar for high-fat sausages throughout storage, although low-fat sausage showed higher hardness, while chewiness, L*, and whiteness tended to decrease. During the first week of storage, the microbial growth was scarce and then, an increase, except in the low-fat batch, in which growth remained constant. Enterobacteria and Staphylococcus aureus were not detected during storage. Sensory attributes throughout storage were very similar for all high-fat sausages; the odor in the formulations was defined as “different” but not unpleasant. The low-fat sausages, defined as a new product different from conventional sausages, were well accepted by the panelist. Banana flours are a suitable ingredient option to add nutritional value to Frankfurter-type sausages, which can be consumed by the wheat allergic population.

Physicochemical characterizations of starches isolated from Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg

Physicochemical characteristics of starch isolated from Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg (T. hemsleyanum) tuber root of 4 different origins were firstly analyzed in this study. The starch granules of T. hemsleyanum tuber root were oval or globular, showed unimodal distribution with average size of 21.66-28.79 μm. T. hemsleyanum starch had typical B-type diffraction pattern. T. hemsleyanum root was rich in starch, and apparent amylose content ranged from 39.82% to 47.67%. The amylopectin chain profiles showed that over 50% of the total detectable chains had degree of polymerization (DP) with 13-24. T. hemsleyanum tuber root had high RS content, which reached up to 61.44% in flour and 68.81% in isolated starch. After cooking, the RS content decreased, but was still high up to 7.52% in flour and 9.93% in isolated starch. The peak gelatinization temperature of T. hemsleyanum starch ranged from 68.12 to 74.42 °C. The peak viscosity of T. hemsleyanum flour and starch ranged from 778 to 1258 cP and 1577 to 2009 cP respectively. The results indicate that T. hemsleyanum is a potential source for novel starch with high resistant starch and provide some guides for comprehensive utilization of T. hemsleyanum starch in food and pharmaceuticals industry.

Chemical Compositions of Edamame Genotypes Grown in Different Locations in the US

The consumption of edamame [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] in the US has rapidly increased due to its nutritional value and potential health benefits. In this study, 10 edamame genotypes were planted in duplicates in three different locations in the US—Whitethorne, Virginia (VA), Little Rock, Arkansas (AR), and Painter, VA. Edamame samples were harvested at the R6 stage of the bean development when beans filled 80–90% of the pod cavity. Afterward, comprehensive chemical composition analysis, including sugars, alanine, protein, oil, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), starch, ash, and moisture contents, were conducted on powdered samples using standard methods and the total sweetness was calculated based on the measured sugars and alanine contents. Significant effects of the location were observed on all chemical constituents of edamame (p &lt; 0.05). The average performance of the genotypes was higher in Whitethorne for the contents of free sucrose (59.29 mg/g), fructose (11.42 mg/g), glucose (5.38 mg/g), raffinose (5.32 mg/g), stachyose (2.34 mg/g), total sweetness (78.63 mg/g), and starch (15.14%) when compared to Little Rock and Painter. The highest soluble alanine (2.67 mg/g), NDF (9.00%), ash (5.60%), and moisture (70.36%) contents were found on edamame planted in Little Rock while edamame planted in Painter had the highest crude protein (43.11%) and oil (20.33%) contents. Significant effects of genotype were observed on most of the chemical constituents (p &lt; 0.05) except NDF and raffinose. Among the 10 genotypes, R13-5029 consistently had high sucrose content and total sweetness across the three locations, meanwhile it had relatively high protein and fiber contents. Overall, the results indicate that to breed better edamame genotypes in the US, both genotype and planting location should be taken into considerations.

The in vivo digestibility study of banana flour with high content of resistant starch at different ripening stages

Resistant starch, a functional food ingredient, can improve the nutritional value of food products. In this study, the in vitro digestibility of starch from banana flour at four ripening stages was evaluated. The result showed that the resistant starch content of banana flour at ripening stage 1 was up to 81%. Furthermore, to explore the effect of resistant starch in the body, the in vivo digestibility of banana flour was investigated. The intake of banana flour at ripening stage 1 resulted in a nearly 70% decrease in the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance value, compared to that of the model group. By contrast, the genes related to glucokinase were upregulated by 66%, and the expression level of the insulin receptor gene was increased by more than 1.5 times that of the model group. Thus, natural banana flour has potential for controlling type 2 diabetes mellitus.