Encapsulation of vitamin D3 in pickering emulsions stabilized by nanofibrillated mangosteen cellulose: Impact on in vitro digestion and bioaccessibility

Palm-based nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) in carotenoid encapsulation and its incorporation into margarine-like reduced fat spread as fat replacer

Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) from plant biomass is becoming popular, attributed to the protective encapsulation of bioactive compounds in Pickering emulsion, preventing degradation and stabilizing the emulsion. NFC, as a natural dietary fiber, is a prominent fat replacer, providing a quality enhancement to reduced-fat products. In this study, NFC Pickering emulsions were prepared at NFC concentrations of 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, and 1% to encapsulate carotenoids. The NFC Pickering emulsions at NFC concentrations of 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, and 1% were incorporated into margarine-like reduced fat (3%) spreads as the aqueous phase. Characterization of both NFC Pickering emulsion and the incorporated NFC Pickering emulsion, margarine-like reduced fat spreads, was conducted with mastersizer, rheometer, spectrophotometer, and texture analyzer. The particle size (73.67 ± 0.35 to 94.73 ± 2.21 nm), viscosity (138.36 ± 3.35 to 10545.00 ± 567.10 mPa s), and creaming stability (25% to 100% stable) of the NFC Pickering emulsions were increased significantly when increasing the NFC concentration, whereas the encapsulation efficiency was highest at NFC 0.4% and 0.6%. Although imitating the viscoelastic solid-like behavior of margarine was difficult, the NFC Pickering emulsion properties were still able to enhance hardness, slip melting point, and color of the reduced fat spreads compared to the full-fat margarine, especially at 0.6% of NFC. Overall, extensive performances of NFC can be seen in encapsulating carotenoids, especially at NFC concentrations of 0.4% and 0.6%, with the enhancement of Pickering emulsion stability while portraying futuristic possibilities as a fat replacer in margarine optimally at 0.6% of NFC concentration. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Nanocellulose extracted from palm dried long fiber was utilized to encapsulate carotenoids and replace fats in margarine-like reduced fat (3%) spreads. Our study portrayed high encapsulation efficiency and successful fat replacement with promising stability performances. Hence, nanocellulose displayed extensive potential as encapsulating agents and fat replacers while providing quality and sustainability enhancements in reduced-fat food.

Lignin nanoparticles from Ayurvedic industry spent materials: Applications in Pickering emulsions for curcumin and vitamin D3 encapsulation

Lignin nanoparticles (LNP), extracted from spent materials of Dashamoola Arishta (Ayurvedic formulation), shared a molecular weight of 14.42 kDa with commercial lignin. Processed into LNPs (496.43 ± 0.54 nm) via planetary ball milling, they demonstrated stability at pH 8.0 with a zeta potential of -32 ± 0.27 mV. Operating as Pickering particles, LNP encapsulated curcumin and vitamin D3 in sunflower oil, forming LnE + Cu + vD3 nanoemulsions (particle size: 347.40 ± 0.71 nm, zeta potential: -42.27 ± 0.72 mV) with high encapsulation efficiencies (curcumin: 87.95 ± 0.21%, vitamin D3: 72.66 ± 0.11%). The LnE + Cu + vD3 emulsion exhibited stability without phase separation over 90 days at room (27 ± 2 °C) and refrigeration (4 ± 1 °C) temperatures. Remarkably, LnE + Cu + vD3 exhibited reduced toxicity, causing 29.32% and 34.99% cell death in L6 and RAW264.7 cells respectively, at the highest concentration (50 μg/mL). This underscores the potential valorization of Ayurvedic industry spent materials for diverse industrial applications.

Emulsification properties of ovalbumin-fucoidan (OVA-FUC) binary complexes

The poor thermal stability and emulsifying properties of ovalbumin (OVA) limit its functional performance, but these limitations may be overcome by forming binary complexes. We prepared binary complexes of OVA and fucoidan (FUC) through electrostatic self-assembly and investigated the emulsifying properties of the complex by measuring the particle size, interfacial membrane thickness, zeta potential, and stability of the emulsion prepared with camellia oil and the complex. The OVA-FUC emulsions have a thicker interfacial membrane, lower mobility, higher viscosity, and better stability compared with the OVA emulsions. The emulsion prepared with 1.5 % OVA-FUC remained stable and homogeneous during storage. They tended to become unstable with freeze-thaw, but the oil encapsulated did not leak after coalescence occurred. With the addition of Ca2+, the OVA-FUC emulsion will be converted into a gel state. These findings indicate that OVA-FUC binary complexes can be used to prepare high-performance emulsions with great potential for development.

Emulsification and stabilisation technologies used for the inclusion of lipophilic functional ingredients in food systems

Food industry is increasingly using functional ingredients to improve the food product quality. Lipid-containing functional ingredients are important sources of nutrients. This review examines the current state of emulsification and stabilisation technologies for incorporating lipophilic functional ingredients into food systems. Lipophilic functional ingredients, such as omega-3 fatty acids, carotenoids, and fat-soluble vitamins, offer numerous health benefits but present challenges due to their limited solubility in water-based food matrices. Emulsification techniques enable the dispersion of these ingredients in aqueous environments, facilitating their inclusion in a variety of food products. This review highlights recent advances in food emulsion formulation, emulsification methods and stabilisation techniques which, together, improve the stability and bioavailability of lipophilic compounds. The role of various emulsifiers, stabilizers, and encapsulation materials in enhancing the functionality of these ingredients is also explored. Furthermore, the review discusses different stabilisation techniques which can yield in emulsion in a solid or liquid state. By providing a comprehensive overview of current technologies, this review aims to guide future research and application in the development of functional foods enriched with lipophilic ingredients.

Recent progress on Pickering emulsion stabilized essential oil added biopolymer-based film for food packaging applications: A review

Nowadays food safety and protection are a growing concern for food producers and food industry. The stability of food-grade materials is key in food processing and shelf life. Pickering emulsions (PEs) have gained significant attention in food regimes owing to their stability enhancement of food specimens. PE can be developed by high and low-energy methods. The use of PE in the food sector is completely safe as it uses solid biodegradable particles to stabilize the oil in water and it also acts as an excellent carrier of essential oils (EOs). EOs are useful functional ingredients, the inclusion of EOs in the packaging film or coating formulation significantly helps in the improvement of the shelf life of the packed food item. The highly volatile nature, limited solubility and ease of oxidation in light of EOs restricts their direct use in packaging. In this context, the use of PEs of EOs is suitable to overcome most of the challenges, Therefore, recently there have been many papers published on PEs of EOs including active packaging film and coatings and the obtained results are promising. The current review amalgamates these studies to inform about the chemistry of PEs followed by types of stabilizers, factors affecting the stability and different high and low-energy manufacturing methods. Finally, the review summarizes the recent advancement in PEs-added packaging film and their application in the enhancement of shelf life of food.

Design, characterization and digestibility of β-carotene-loaded emulsion system stabilized by whey protein with chitosan and potato starch addition

The physicochemical properties and gastrointestinal fate of β-carotene-loaded emulsions and emulsion gels were examined. The emulsion was emulsified by whey protein isolate and incorporated with chitosan, then the emulsion gels were produced by gelatinizing potato starch in the aqueous phase. The rheology properties, water distribution, and microstructure of emulsions and emulsion gels were modulated by chitosan combination. A standardized INFOGEST method was employed to track the gastrointestinal fate of emulsion systems. Significant changes in droplet size, zeta-potential, and aggregation state were detected during in vitro digestion, including simulated oral, stomach, and small intestine phases. The presence of chitosan led to a significantly reduced free fatty acids release in emulsion, whereas a slightly increasing released amount in the emulsion gel. β-carotene bioaccessibility was significantly improved by hydrogel formation and chitosan addition. These results could be used to formulate advanced emulsion systems to improve the gastrointestinal fate of hydrophobic nutraceuticals.

General approaches to biopolymer-based Pickering emulsions

Pickering emulsion is a type of emulsion that uses solid particles or colloidal particles as emulsifiers rather than surfactants to adhere at oil-water interface. Pickering emulsions have gathered significant research attention recently due to their excellent stability and wide range of potential uses compared to traditional emulsions. Major advancements have been made in development of innovative Pickering emulsions using different colloidal particles by various techniques including homogenization, emulsification and ultrasonication. Use of biopolymer particles gives Pickering emulsions a more escalating possibilities. In this review paper, we seek to present a critical overview of development in food-grade particles that have been utilized to create Pickering emulsions with a focus on techniques and application of Pickering emulsions. Particularly, we have evaluated protein, lipid, polysaccharide-based particles and microalgal proteins that have emerged in recent years with respect to their potential to stabilize and add novel functionalities to Pickering emulsions. Some preparation methods of Pickering emulsions in brief, applications of Pickering emulsions are also highlighted. Encapsulation and delivery of bioactive compounds, fat substitutes, film formation and catalysis are potential applications of Pickering emulsions. Pickering double emulsions, nutraceutical and bioactive co-delivery, and preparation of porous materials are among research trends of food-grade Pickering emulsions.

Pickering emulsion emulsified using novel cellulose nanofibers significantly lowers the lipid release rate and cellular absorption

A Pickering emulsion is an emulsion system stabilized by solid particles and represents a promising candidate for emulsifying lipids. Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) have excellent ability to control the lipid release rate. This study aims to find the optimal formulation for a nanocellulose-stabilized Pickering emulsion that is the most effective in reducing the lipid release rate. The Pickering emulsion was prepared by homogenizing pretreated nanocellulose with medium-chain triglycerides using high-speed and ultrasonic homogenizers. The results show that the Pickering emulsion with 0.709% nanocellulose and 30.6% medium-chain fatty acid content yielded an average particle size of approximately 2.5 μm, which is the most stable and effective in reducing the amount of the lipids released. The nanocellulose Pickering emulsion formulation developed in this study forms a significant foundation for future research and applications regarding the use of nanotechnology and Pickering emulsions to maintain the balance between one's health and the desirable flavor of fat.

Chitin nanocrystals/alginate complex for tuning stability, rheology and bioavailability of cholecalciferol in Pickering emulsions

In this paper we investigate polyelectrolyte complexes of sodium alginate (Alg) and chitin nanocrystals (ChNC). Formation, stability and transport properties of sunflower oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by ChNC-Alg complex were studied using dynamic light scattering (DLS), laser Doppler electrophoresis, optical microscopy, potentiometric titration, rheology and simulated digestion. It has been established that during emulsions formation, the ChNC-Alg complex is rearranged at the interface and the formation of a two-layer coating of the droplet occurs. Stabilized O/W emulsions are stable during storage, in the pH range 2-9 and centrifugal acceleration up to 2000 RCF. Presence of Ca2+ and Na+ ions in the range up to 150 mM has virtually no effect on the droplet size. Inclusion of 5 wt% Alg in the ChNC-based emulsion stabilizer system leads to a drop in Gibbs adsorption >16 times compared to the ChNC-stabilized emulsion, increase in viscosity and rheopexy index of the systems. We found that chemical properties of colloidal phase surface and rheological properties of emulsions stabilized by ChNC-Alg are mostly dependent on the droplet size, not the type of oil as a result of a comparative study of sunflower oil/liquid paraffin oil. Emulsion drops of an optimized composition are stable in the upper parts of the model gastrointestinal tract system and transport vitamin D3 to the small intestine without significant losses. The bioavailability of vitamin D3 in emulsions stabilized with the ChNC-Alg complex is higher than for emulsions stabilized with ChNC alone.

Self-constructed water-in-oil Pickering emulsions as a tool for increasing bioaccessibility of betulin

Self-constructed water-in-oil emulsions can be stabilized by a natural pentacyclic triterpenoid, betulin. A higher betulin concentration (3%) results in smaller emulsion droplet sizes. Microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy and rheology indicate that the stabilizing mechanism is attributed to betulin crystals on the emulsion interface and within the continuous phase, thereby enabling excellent freeze/thaw and thermal stability. The betulin Pickering emulsion (1%) significantly increased betulin bioaccessibility (22.4%) compared to betulin alone (0.2%) and betulin-oil physical mixture (7.9%). A higher level of betulin at 3% leads to smaller emulsion particle size, potentially resulting in a greater surface area. This, in return, promotes a higher release of free fatty acids (FFA), contributing to the release and solubilization of betulin from emulsions. Additionally, it leads to the formation of micelles, further increasing betulin bioaccessibility (29.3%). This study demonstrates Pickering emulsions solely stabilized by phytochemical betulin provides an innovative way to improve its bioaccessibility.

Physical properties and in-vitro gastrointestinal digestion of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by single- and dual-modified cassava starches with cross-linking and octenylsuccinylation

The different modified cassava starches (MCS) obtained by either single or dual modifications with cross-linking (CL) and octenylsuccinylation (OS), including 2%CL, 3%OS, 2%CL-3%OS, and 3%OS-2%CL, were used to stabilize soybean oil-in-water emulsions (oil content 10% (w/w)) at a concentration of 4.5% (w/w) compared to native cassava starch (NCS) and their physical properties and in-vitro gastrointestinal digestion were investigated. The emulsions stabilized with NCS and 2%CL-MCS had larger oil droplet sizes, higher viscosity, and lower negative charge than the emulsions stabilized by single- or dual-MCS with 3%OS. All MCS-stabilized emulsions showed a higher emulsion stability against creaming than the NCS-stabilized emulsion. Under a simulated gastrointestinal tract, all 3%OS-MCS promoted droplet flocculation, while the less ionic NCS and the 2%CL-MCS showed a decrease in droplet size after passing through the mouth and stomach stages. The lipid digestion rate of emulsions stabilized with different MCS and NCS followed the following order: 3%OS >2%CL-3%OS > 3%OS-2%CL > 2%CL > NCS. The NCS- and 2%CL-stabilized emulsions had a lower lipid digestion rate, possibly due to the larger droplet sizes and higher viscosity of the initial emulsions, which delays access of lipase enzymes to lipid droplet surfaces, compared to all 3%OS-MCS-stabilized emulsions.

Modulating in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of nanocellulose-stabilized pickering emulsions by altering particle surface charge

An in vitro model of human gastrointestinal digestion was introduced to investigate the effects of surface charge of cellulose nanoparticles on emulsion structure during gastric phase, lipase activity, bile salt diffusion, and free fatty acid (FFA) release. Four carboxymethylated cellulose nanofibrils (CNF; C0, C0.36, C0.72, and C1.24) were used, showing different surface charge (p < 0.05). First, four carboxymethylated CNFs had no inhibition effects on lipase activity and bile salt diffusion. Moreover, we found that the lipid emulsion containing CNF formed gel structure to induce oil droplets aggregation during simulated gastric phase. Additionally, the particle surface charge greatly influenced the gel structure of emulsion where a denser gel structure was observed in the C0 (lowest surface charged CNF) stabilized emulsion. Finally, the released FFA results showed that the formed gel structure lowered the lipid emulsion digestion attributed to the restricted adherent area of oil droplets for lipase and bile salt.

In Vitro and In Vivo Performance of Pickering Emulsion-Based Powders of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) are essential nutrients for human health and have been linked to a variety of health benefits, including reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases. In this paper, a spray-dried powder formulation based on Pickering emulsions stabilized with cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) has been developed. The formulation was compared in vitro and in vivo to reference emulsions (conventional Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System, SEDDS) to formulate n-3 PUFA pharmaceutical products, specifically in free fatty acid form. The results of in vivo studies performed in fasted dogs showed that Pickering emulsions reconstituted from powders are freely available (fast absorption) with a similar level of bioavailability as reference emulsions. In the studies performed with dogs in the fed state, the higher bioavailability combined with slower absorption observed for the Pickering emulsion, compared to the reference, was proposed to be the result of the protection of the n-3 PUFAs (in free fatty acid form) against oxidation in the stomach by the solid particles stabilizing the emulsion. This observation was supported by promising results from short-term studies of chemical stability of powders with n-3 PUFA loads as high as 0.8 g oil/g powder that easily regain the original emulsion drop sizes upon reconstitution. The present work has shown that Pickering emulsions may offer a promising strategy for improving the bioavailability and stability as well as providing an opportunity to produce environmentally friendly (surfactant free) and patient-acceptable solid oral dosage forms of n-3 PUFA in the free fatty acid form.

Soy protein isolate-guar gum-goose liver oil O/W Pickering emulsions that remain stable under accelerated oxidation at high temperatures

BACKGROUND

Goose liver oil (GLO) is a solid-liquid mixture, rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids and high in nutritional value, but poor in fluidity and easily oxidized. Therefore, oil-in-water (O/W) Pickering emulsions of three polysaccharides and soy protein isolate (SPI) with GLO were prepared to improve the stability of it.

RESULTS

Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and zeta potential revealed that the SPI and complexes with konjac glucomannan, pectin, and guar gum (GG) ranged from 17 to 75 kDa, with the site of action being the -OH stretch and the amide group, and bound by hydrogen bonding. Adding konjac glucomannan and GG significantly increased the water contact angle of the SPI to 74.1° and 59.0°, respectively. Therefore, the protein-polysaccharide complexes could enhance the emulsion stability. In addition, the O/W Pickering emulsions with GLO had near-Newtonian fluid rheological properties with a significant increase in apparent viscosity and viscoelasticity, forming a dual network structure consisting of a ductile and flexible protein network and a rigid and brittle polysaccharide network. The microstructure observation indicated that the O/W emulsions were spherical and homogeneous. The highest emulsification activity was observed for the SPI-GG-GLO emulsions, without significant delamination or flocculation and high oxidative stability after 7 days in storage.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that the construction of SPI-GG-GLO O/W Pickering emulsions can stabilize GLO even at high temperatures that promote oxidation. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Emulsion for stabilizing β-carotene and curcumin prepared directly using a continuous phase of polysaccharide-rich Schizophyllum commune fermentation broth

In this study, we examined the effect of Schizophyllum commune fermentation broth (SCFB) rich in polysaccharides (SCFP) on the stability and bioaccessibility of β-carotene and curcumin. An SCFB-stabilized oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion (SCFBe) was prepared using SCFB as the continuous phase, and then evaluated for storage stability using an SCFP-based emulsion (SCFPe) as the control. The findings revealed that SCFBe is more stable at 60 °C than SCFPe, and stratification or droplet size varied at differing pH levels (3-9) and concentrations of Na+ (0.1-0.5 M) and Ca2+ (0.01-0.05 M). Since the absolute value of the zeta potential of SCFBe is much lower at 60 °C than that at 4 °C and 25 °C, a higher temperature (60 °C) may enhance the reactivity of polysaccharides and proteins in SCFB to improve the stability of SCFBe. Both the protective impact of SCFB on functional food molecules and their capacity to block lipid oxidation increased as polysaccharide content improved. The bioaccessibility of β-carotene after in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion is 11.18 %-12.28 %, whereas that of curcumin is 31.64 %-33.00 %. By fermenting edible and medicinal fungi in liquid, we created a unique and environmentally friendly approach for getting food-grade emulsifiers without extraction.

Properties of Heat-Assisted pH Shifting and Compounded Chitosan from Insoluble Rice Peptide Precipitate and Its Application in the Curcumin-Loaded Pickering Emulsions

Curcumin exhibits antioxidant and antitumor properties, but its poor chemical stability limits its application. Insoluble peptide precipitates formed by proteolysis of rice glutelin are usually discarded, resulting in resource waste. The coupled treatment of heat-assisted pH shifting and compounded chitosan (CS) was used to fabricate rice peptide aggregate-chitosan complexes (RPA-CS). The structure, interfacial behavior, emulsion properties, and digestibility of curcumin-loaded RPA-CS Pickering emulsions were investigated. Increasing the CS concentration led to lower interfacial tension but larger particle size, and the three-phase contact angle of the RPA-CS complexes approached 90°. Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) indicated that RPA-CS complexes with 6 g·kg-1 of CS (RPA-CS6) had the highest K1 (0.592 × 106 Hz-1) and K4 (0.487 × 106 Hz-1), suggesting that the softest interfacial layers were formed. The solid-liquid balance of RPA-RPA-CS emulsions was lower than 0.5, declaring that they had more elastic behavior than that of RPA emulsions. RPA-RPA-CS4-and RPA-CS6 emulsions had better storage stability, lower FFA release (79.8% and 76.3%, respectively), and higher curcumin bioaccessibility (65.2% and 68.2%, respectively) than RPA emulsions. This study showed that a low-value insoluble rice peptide precipitate could be used as a valuable emulsifier in foods, which may increase the economics and sustainability of the food supply.

Curcumin-loaded oil body emulsions prepared by an ultrasonic and pH-driven method: Fundamental properties, stability, and digestion characteristics

In this study, oil bodies (OBs) loaded with curcumin (Cur) were successfully prepared via an ultrasonic and pH-driven method. Ultrasonic treatment significantly improved the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) of Cur, producing OB particles with small size, uniform distribution, and high ζ-potential absolute values. When the ultrasonic power was 200 W, the EE, LC, and ζ-potential absolute value were the greatest (88.27 %, 0.044 %, and -25.71 mV, respectively), and the OBs possessed the highest yellowness, representing the best treatment result. The confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and cryo-scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM) results was also intuitionally shown that. Moreover, circular dichroism (CD) proved that ultrasonic treatment could unfold the surface protein structure, further enhancing the stability. Therefore, the cream index (CI), peroxide value (POV), and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were the lowest when the ultrasonic power was 200 W. In this case, the Cur loaded in OBs was well protected against hostile conditions, evidenced by the highest Cur retention rate and the lowest degradation rate constant. Finally, the in vitro gastrointestinal digestion simulation results showed that the ultrasonic treatment effectively increased the release of FFA, bioaccessibility, and stability of Cur, especially when the ultrasonic power was 200 W. This research offers a new OB-based delivery system to stabilize, deliver, and protect Cur for food processing.

Encapsulation of vitamin D3 using rhamnolipids-based nanostructured lipid carriers

This work had as main objective to encapsulate vitamin D3 (VD3) into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) using rhamnolipids as surfactant. Glycerol monostearate and medium chain triglycerides with 2.625 % of VD3 were used as lipid materials. The three formulations of NLCs with VD3 (NLCs + VD3) were composed by 99 % of aqueous phase, 1 % of lipid phase and 0.05 % of surfactant. The difference between them was the ratio of solid:liquid in lipid phase. The NLCs + VD3 sizes ranged between 92.1 and 108.1 nm. The most stable formulation maintaining their caracteristics for 60 days at 4 °C. The NLCs + VD3 cytotoxicity demonstrated that concentrations of 0.25 mg/mL or lower up had a good biocompatibility in vitro. During the in vitro digestion, formulations with lower sizes and higher content on solid lipid had higher lipolysis rate and consequently higher VD3 bioaccessibility. The rhamnolipids-based NLCs are a good option for the encapsulation of VD3.

The lipid digestion behavior of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by different particle-sized insoluble dietary fiber from citrus peel

In this study, oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by insoluble dietary fibre from citrus peel (CIDF) exhibited an obviously delayed lipid digestion property through gastrointestinal tract (GIT) model. Our results suggested that the rate and extent of lipid digestion greatly relied on particle sizes and concentrations of CIDF, and the inhibition effect of lipolysis was markedly enhanced with decreasing particle sizes and increasing CIDF levels. Furthermore, compared with Tween80-stabilized emulsion, the maximum inhibition extent of lipolysis was 38.77% for CIDF400-stabilized one at 0.4 wt% concentration. Effects of CIDFs on lipid digestion was mainly due to the formation of protective layers around oil droplets, further blocking the entry of lipase to the internal lipids, and/or attributed to the increasing viscosity of emulsions caused by CIDFs, finally limiting the transportation of some substances in the simulated small intestine digestion. Our research would provide useful references for the application of CIDF-stabilized emulsions in low-calorie food.

Nanoscale ZnO Improves the Amino Acids and Lipids in Tomato Fruits and the Subsequent Assimilation in a Simulated Human Gastrointestinal Tract Model

With the widespread use of nanoenabled agrochemicals, it is essential to evaluate the food safety of nanomaterials (NMs)-treated vegetable crops in full life cycle studies as well as their potential impacts on human health. Tomato seedlings were foliarly sprayed with 50 mg/L ZnO NMs, including ZnO quantum dots (QDs) and ZnO nanoparticles once per week over 11 weeks. The foliar sprayed ZnO QDs increased fruit dry weight and yield per plant by 39.1% and 24.9, respectively. It also significantly increased the lycopene, amino acids, Zn, B, and Fe in tomato fruits by 40.5%, 15.1%, 44.5%, 76.2%, and 12.8%, respectively. The tomato fruit metabolome of tomatoes showed that ZnO NMs upregulated the biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids and sphingolipid metabolism and elevated the levels of linoleic and arachidonic acids. The ZnO NMs-treated tomato fruits were then digested in a human gastrointestinal tract model. The results of essential mineral release suggested that the ZnO QDs treatment increased the bioaccessibility of K, Zn, and Cu by 14.8-35.1% relative to the control. Additionally, both types of ZnO NMs had no negative impact on the α-amylase, pepsin, and trypsin activities. The digested fruit metabolome in the intestinal fluid demonstrated that ZnO NMs did not interfere with the normal process of human digestion. Importantly, ZnO NMs treatments increased the glycerophospholipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, and peptides in the intestinal fluids of tomato fruits. This study suggests that nanoscale Zn can be potentially used to increase the nutritional value of vegetable crops and can be an important tool to sustainably increase food quality and security.

Soy Protein Isolate-Chitosan Nanoparticle-Stabilized Pickering Emulsions: Stability and In Vitro Digestion for DHA

The purpose of the study was to investigate the stability and oral delivery of DHA-encapsulated Pickering emulsions stabilized by soy protein isolate-chitosan (SPI-CS) nanoparticles (SPI-CS Pickering emulsions) under various conditions and in the simulated gastrointestinal (GIT) model. The stability of DHA was characterized by the retention rate under storage, ionic strength, and thermal conditions. The oral delivery efficiency was characterized by the retention and release rate of DHA in the GIT model and cell viability and uptake in the Caco-2 model. The results showed that the content of DHA was above 90% in various conditions. The retention rate of DHA in Pickering emulsions containing various nanoparticle concentrations (1.5 and 3.5%) decreased to 80%, while passing through the mouth to the stomach, and DHA was released 26% in 1.5% Pickering emulsions, which was faster than that of 3.5% in the small intestine. After digestion, DHA Pickering emulsions proved to be nontoxic and effectively absorbed by cells. These findings helped to develop a novel delivery system for DHA.

Important Role and Properties of Granular Nanocellulose Particles in an In Vitro Simulated Gastrointestinal System and in Lipid Digestibility and Permeability

This research evaluated the role and feasibility of the granular nanocellulose particles (GNC) from sugarcane bagasse obtained from enzymatic hydrolysis in reducing lipid digestibility and permeability in an in vitro simulated gastrointestinal (GI) system. GNC concentration (0.02%, w/v) had significantly affected the released free fatty acids (FFA), with a reduction of approximately 20%. Pickering emulsion of a GNC and olive oil simulation mixture revealed higher oil droplet size distribution and stability in the initial stage than the vortexed mixture formation. The difference in particle size distribution and zeta potential of the ingested GNC suspension and GNC-olive oil emulsion were displayed during the in vitro gastrointestinal simulation. GNC particles interacted and distributed surrounding the oil droplet, leading to interfacial emulsion. The GNC concentration (0.01-0.10%, w/v) showed low toxicity on HIEC-6 cells, ranging from 80.0 to 99% of cell viability. The release of FFA containing the ingested GNC suspension and GNC-olive oil emulsion had about a 30% reduction compared to that without the GNC digestion solution. The FFA and triglyceride permeability through the HIEC-6 intestinal epithelium monolayer were deceased in the digesta containing the ingested GNC and emulsion. This work indicated that GNC represented a significantly critical role and properties in the GI tract and reduced lipid digestion and absorption. This GNC could be utilized as an alternative food additive or supplement in fatty food for weight control due to their inhibition of lipid digestibility and assimilation.

Characterization and Antifungal Activity of Lemongrass Essential Oil-Loaded Nanoemulsion Stabilized by Carboxylated Cellulose Nanofibrils and Surfactant

Nanocellulose is an emerging green, biodegradable and biocompatible nanomaterial with negligible toxicities. In this study, a carboxylated nanocellulose (i.e., 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-oxyl (TEMPO)-oxidized cellulose nanofibril (TEMPO-CNF)) was prepared from corn stover and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)/thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Corn stover-derived TEMPO-CNF was explored as an emulsion co-stabilizer together with Tween 80 for lemongrass essential oil-loaded emulsions. Droplet size, phase behavior and thermodynamic stability of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by Tween 80 and TEMPO-CNF were investigated. The optimal nanoemulsion stabilized by this binary stabilizer could achieve a mean particle size of 19 nm, and it did not form any phase separation against centrifugal forces, freeze-thaw cycles and at least 30 days of room temperature storage. The nanoencapsulated essential oil had better inhibition activity against the mycelial growth of Aspergillus flavus than pure essential oil. Results from this study demonstrate the potential of using agricultural byproduct-derived nanomaterial as nanoemulsion stabilizers for essential oils with good emulsion thermodynamic stability as well as enhanced antifungal activities.

Nanocellulose-stabilized Pickering emulsions: Fabrication, stabilization, and food applications

Pickering emulsions have been widely studied due to their good stability and potential applications. Nanocellulose including cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs), and bacterial cellulose nanofibrils (BCNFs) has emerged as sustainable stabilizers/emulsifiers in food-related Pickering emulsions due to their favorable properties such as renewability, low toxicity, amphiphilicity, biocompatibility, and high aspect ratio. Nanocellulose can be widely obtained from different sources and extraction methods and can effectively stabilize Pickering emulsions via the irreversible adsorption onto oil-water interface. The synergistic effects of nanocellulose and other substances can further enhance the interfacial networks. The nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsions have potential food-related applications in delivery systems, food packaging materials, and fat substitutes. Nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsions as 3D printing inks exhibit good injectable and gelling properties and are promising to print spatial architectures. In the future, the utilization of biomass waste and the development of "green" and facile extraction methods for nanocellulose production deserve more attention. The stability of nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsions in multi-component food systems and at various conditions is an utmost challenge. Moreover, the case-by-case studies on the potential safety issues of nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsions need to be carried out with the standardized assessment procedures. In this review, we highlight key fundamental work and recent reports on nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsion systems. The sources and extraction of nanocellulose and the fabrication of nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsions are briefly summarized. Furthermore, the synergistic stability and food-related applications of nanocellulose-stabilized Pickering emulsions are spotlighted.

Pomelo peel derived nanocellulose as Pickering stabilizers: Fabrication of Pickering emulsions and their potential as sustained-release delivery systems for lycopene

Two kinds of nanocellulose (cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) were synthesized from pomelo peels via a facile approach of TEMPO oxidation and sulfuric acid treatment respectively. The FTIR results illustrated that hemicelluloses and lignin were completely removed from the pomelo peel cellulose substrate. The obtained CNFs and CNCs possessed a uniform morphology and nanoscale particle size. The stability of CNF-based Pickering emulsions was higher than that of emulsions stabilized with CNCs, due to the formation of gel structure induced by the CNFs' longer fibrils. Increased oil fractions enhanced the viscoelasticity of CNF-based Pickering emulsions. The in vitro digestion results suggested that increased oil fractions decreased the lipolysis degree, as a result of the larger droplet size and higher viscoelasticity of emulsion. The release of lycopene showed a trend similar to that of FFA release, suggesting that higher oil fractions were beneficial for controlling lycopene release during gastrointestinal digestion.

Surfactant-free oleogel-based emulsion stabilized by co-assembled ceramide/lecithin crystals with controlled digestibility

BACKGROUND

There is increasing interest in the development of oleogel-based emulsions. However, they usually contained surfactants for stabilization, especially small-molecular weight surfactants, which may have adverse health impacts.

RESULTS

Herein, a surfactant-free oleogel-based emulsion stabilized by co-assembled ceramide/lecithin (CER/LEC) crystals was developed. The formation and stabilization mechanisms were explored. The different molar ratios of gelator (LEC and CER) in emulsions resulted in different crystal morphology, crystallinity as well as different emulsion properties. This suggested that appropriate crystallinity, crystal size, and interfacial distribution of these crystals provided higher surface coverage against droplets coalescence, thus better emulsion stabilization. Both X-ray diffractograms and contact angle results confirmed that the crystals which were primarily responsible for emulsion stabilization, are co-assembled crystals consisted of both gelators (CER and LEC). Furthermore, the percentage of free fatty acids (FFAs%) results revealed a negative relationship between lipid digestibility and crystal concentration.

CONCLUSIONS

This strategy greatly enriched surfactant-free oleogel-based emulsion formulations, as well as their potential applications in healthy lipid-based products and novel food delivery systems with controlled lipid digestibility. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Oral bioavailability of bioactive compounds; modulating factors, in vitro analysis methods, and enhancing strategies

Foods are complex biosystems made up of a wide variety of compounds. Some of them, such as nutrients and bioactive compounds (bioactives), contribute to supporting body functions and bring important health benefits; others, such as food additives, are involved in processing techniques and contribute to improving sensory attributes and ensuring food safety. Also, there are antinutrients in foods that affect food bioefficiency and contaminants that increase the risk of toxicity. The bioefficiency of food is evaluated with bioavailability which represents the amount of nutrients or bioactives from the consumed food reaching the organs and tissues where they exert their biological activity. Oral bioavailability is the result of some physicochemical and biological processes in which food is involved such as liberation, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination (LADME). In this paper, a general presentation of the factors influencing oral bioavailability of nutrients and bioactives as well as the in vitro techniques for evaluating bioaccessibility and is provided. In this context, a critical analysis of the effects of physiological factors related to the characteristics of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) on oral bioavailability is discussed, such as pH, chemical composition, volumes of gastrointestinal (GI) fluids, transit time, enzymatic activity, mechanical processes, and so on, and the pharmacokinetics factors including BAC and solubility of bioactives, their transport across the cell membrane, their biodistribution and metabolism. The impact of matrix and food processing on the BAC of bioactives is also explained. The researchers' recent concerns for improving oral bioavailability of nutrients and food bioactives using both traditional techniques, for example, thermal treatments, mechanical processes, soaking, germination and fermentation, as well as food nanotechnologies, such as loading of bioactives in different colloidal delivery systems (CDSs), is also highlighted.

Nanocellulose: An amazing nanomaterial with diverse applications in food science

Recently, nanocellulose has gained growing interests in food science due to its many advantages including its broad resource of raw materials, renewability, interface stability, high surface area, mechanical strength, prebiotic characteristics, surface chemistry versatility and easy modification. Since then, this review summarized the sources, morphology, and structure characteristics of nanocellulose. Meanwhile, the mechanical, chemical, and combined treatment methods for the preparation of nanocellulose with desired properties were elaborated. Furthermore, the application of nanocellulose in Pickering emulsions, reinforced food packaging, functional food ingredient, food-grade hydrogels, and biosensors were emphasized. Finally, the safety, challenges, and future perspectives of nanocellulose were discussed. This work provided key developments and effective benefits of nanocellulose for future research opportunities in food.

Pickering Emulsions Based in Inorganic Solid Particles: From Product Development to Food Applications

Pickering emulsions (PEs) have attracted attention in different fields, such as food, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, mainly due to their good physical stability. PEs are a promising strategy to develop functional products since the particles’ oil and water phases can act as carriers of active compounds, providing multiple combinations potentiating synergistic effects. Moreover, they can answer the sustainable and green chemistry issues arising from using conventional emulsifier-based systems. In this context, this review focuses on the applicability of safe inorganic solid particles as emulsion stabilisers, discussing the main stabilisation mechanisms of oil–water interfaces. In particular, it provides evidence for hydroxyapatite (HAp) particles as Pickering stabilisers, discussing the latest advances. The main technologies used to produce PEs are also presented. From an industrial perspective, an effort was made to list new productive technologies at the laboratory scale and discuss their feasibility for scale-up. Finally, the advantages and potential applications of PEs in the food industry are also described. Overall, this review gathers recent developments in the formulation, production and properties of food-grade PEs based on safe inorganic solid particles.

Astaxanthin-Loaded Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by Nanofibrillated Cellulose: Impact on Emulsion Characteristics, Digestion Behavior, and Bioaccessibility

Astaxanthin (AX) is one of the major bioactives that has been found to have strong antioxidant properties. However, AX tends to degrade due to its highly unsaturated structure. To overcome this problem, a Pickering O/W emulsion using nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) as an emulsifier was investigated. NFC was used because it is renewable, biodegradable, and nontoxic. The 10 wt% O/W emulsions with 0.05 wt% AX were prepared with different concentrations of NFC (0.3-0.7 wt%). After 30 days of storage, droplet size, ζ-potential values, viscosity, encapsulation efficiency (EE), and color were determined. The results show that more stable emulsions are formed with increasing NFC concentrations, which can be attributed to the formulation of the NFC network in the aqueous phase. Notably, the stability of the 0.7 wt% NFC-stabilized emulsion was high, indicating that NFC can improve the emulsion's stability. Moreover, it was found that fat digestibility and AX bioaccessibility decreased with increasing NFC concentrations, which was due to the limitation of lipase accessibility. In contrast, the stability of AX increased with increasing NFC concentrations, which was due to the formation of an NFC layer that acted as a barrier and prevented the degradation of AX during in vitro digestion. Therefore, high concentrations of NFC are useful for functional foods delivering satiety instead of oil-soluble bioactives.

Natural carriers: Recent advances in their use to improve the stability and bioaccessibility of food active compounds

In the last decades, the incorporation of bioactive compounds in food supplements aroused the attention of scientists. However, these ingredients often exhibit both low solubility and stability and their poor bioaccessibility within the gastrointestinal tract limits their effectiveness. To overcome these drawbacks, many carriers have been investigated for encapsulating nutraceuticals and enhancing their bioavailability. It is note that several different vegetable wall materials have been applied to build delivery systems. Considering their encapsulation mechanism, lipid and protein-based carriers display specific interaction patterns with bioactives, whereas polysaccharidic-based carriers can entrap them by creating porous highly stable networks. To maximize the encapsulation efficiency, mixed systems are very promising. Following the current goal of using natural and sustainable ingredients, only a limited number of studies about the isolation of new ingredients from agro-food waste are available. In this review, a comprehensive overview of the state of art in the development of innovative natural lipid-, protein- and polysaccharide-based plant carriers is presented, focusing on their application as food active compounds. Different aspects to be considered in the design of delivery systems are discussed, including the carrier structure and chemical features, the interaction between the encapsulating and the core material, and the parameters affecting bioactives entrapment.

Review of Functional Aspects of Nanocellulose-Based Pickering Emulsifier for Non-Toxic Application and Its Colloid Stabilization Mechanism

In the past few years, the research on particle-stabilized emulsion (Pickering emulsion) has mainly focused on the usage of inorganic particles with well-defined shapes, narrow size distributions, and chemical tunability of the surfaces such as silica, alumina, and clay. However, the presence of incompatibility of some inorganic particles that are non-safe to humans and the ecosystem and their poor sustainability has led to a shift towards the development of materials of biological origin. For this reason, nano-dimensional cellulose (nanocellulose) derived from natural plants is suitable for use as a Pickering material for liquid interface stabilization for various non-toxic product formulations (e.g., the food and beverage, cosmetic, personal care, hygiene, pharmaceutical, and biomedical fields). However, the current understanding of nanocellulose-stabilized Pickering emulsion still lacks consistency in terms of the structural, self-assembly, and physio-chemical properties of nanocellulose towards the stabilization between liquid and oil interfaces. Thus, this review aims to provide a comprehensive study of the behavior of nanocellulose-based particles and their ability as a Pickering functionality to stabilize emulsion droplets. Extensive discussion on the characteristics of nanocelluloses, morphology, and preparation methods that can potentially be applied as Pickering emulsifiers in a different range of emulsions is provided. Nanocellulose's surface modification for the purpose of altering its characteristics and provoking multifunctional roles for high-grade non-toxic applications is discussed. Subsequently, the water-oil stabilization mechanism and the criteria for effective emulsion stabilization are summarized in this review. Lastly, we discuss the toxicity profile and risk assessment guidelines for the whole life cycle of nanocellulose from the fresh feedstock to the end-life of the product.

Application of Curcumin Emulsion Carrier from Ultrasonic-Assisted Prepared Octenyl Succinic Anhydride Rice Starch

The emulsification of ultrasonic-assisted prepared octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) rice starch on curcumin was investigated in the present study. The results indicated that the encapsulation efficiency of curcumin in emulsions stabilized by OSA-ultrasonic treatment rice starch was improved, from 81.65 ± 0.14% to 89.03 ± 0.09%. During the in vitro oral digestion, the particle size and Zeta potential of the curcumin emulsion did not change significantly (p > 0.05). During the in vitro digestive stage of the stomach and small intestine, the particle size of the curcumin emulsion continued to increase, and the absolute potential continued to decrease. Our work showed that OSA-pre-treatment ultrasonic rice starch could improve curcumin bioavailability by increasing the encapsulation efficiency with stronger stability to avoid the attack of enzymes and high intensity ion, providing a way to develop new emulsion-based delivery systems for bioactive lipophilic compounds using OSA starch.

A review of recent progress in improving the bioavailability of nutraceutical-loaded emulsions after oral intake

Increasing awareness of the health benefits of specific constituents in fruits, vegetables, cereals, and other whole foods has sparked a broader interest in the potential health benefits of nutraceuticals. Many nutraceuticals are hydrophobic substances, which means they must be encapsulated in colloidal delivery systems. Oil-in-water emulsions are one of the most widely used delivery systems for improving the bioavailability and bioactivity of these nutraceuticals. The composition and structure of emulsions can be designed to improve the water dispersibility, physicochemical stability, and bioavailability of the encapsulated nutraceuticals. The nature of the emulsion used influences the interfacial area and properties of the nutraceutical-loaded oil droplets in the gastrointestinal tract, which influences their digestion, as well as the bioaccessibility, metabolism, and absorption of the nutraceuticals. In this article, we review recent in vitro and in vivo studies on the utilization of emulsions to improve the bioavailability of nutraceuticals. The findings from this review should facilitate the design of more efficacious nutraceutical-loaded emulsions with increased bioactivity.

Biocompatible Nanoparticle Heteroaggregates as Stabilizers of Pickering Emulsions for Vitamin D3 Efficient Delivery

Vitamin D3 deficiency is a major public health problem worldwide, and standard cholecalciferol formulations provide poor absorbability of the vitamin. Several biphasic formulas have been proposed to overcome the disadvantages in which Pickering emulsions stand out in particular. This paper describes olive oil-in-water Pickering emulsions stabilized by pseudoboehmite (AlOOH), cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), and their heterocoagulates. Colloidal properties were assessed by laser Doppler microelectrophoresis, potentiometric titration, and rheology. It was shown that the heterocoagulation of CNC and AlOOH led to a drastic change in surface properties (ζ-potential, pKa, and number of active centers), which promoted the formation of more stable emulsions with the smallest size of droplets and the highest viscosity among the studied samples. Simulated digestion studies showed the targeted release in the small intestine medium where cholecalciferol should be delivered. High-performance liquid chromatography showed the efficient encapsulation of cholecalciferol in emulsions (86% of initial concentration). Oral administration to laboratory mice of initial nanoparticles and emulsions stabilized by them showed nontoxicity for all of the components, and they were estimated to be class V materials. The proposed emulsions have great potential as targeted delivery systems of lipophilic drugs.

pH-driven-assembled soy peptide nanoparticles as particulate emulsifier for oil-in-water Pickering emulsion and their potential for encapsulation of vitamin D3

Pickering emulsions prepared by food-grade particles have gained growing attention due to their promising application in functional food and pharmaceutical industries. In this study, we successfully fabricated soy peptide-based nanoparticles (SPN) through pH-driven process. Obtained particles with small particle size were surface active and shared intermediate wettability, and they could be well applied as an efficient particulate emulsifier for stabilizing oil-in-water Pickering emulsions at SPN concentration above 0.25 wt%. Furthermore, formed emulsions stabilized with SPN exhibited good protection towards Vitamin D₃ against UV irradiation and oxidative deterioration, where controlled release of Vitamin D₃in vitro could also be well achieved by modulating particle concentration. The whole process can contribute to a sustainable development of low-value peptide byproducts as functional food ingredients.

Date fruit as a promising source of functional carbohydrates and bioactive compounds: A review on its nutraceutical potential

From the past decade, consumption of ready-to-eat food and ease of access to fast food increased the onset of several diseases. Thus, there is a need to shift the trend from consumption of unhealthy food item to natural and healthy alternatives. In this context, fruits can be considered as functional food, which have ability to provide essential nutrients and bioactive compounds. These compounds when consume in adequate amount would have the potential to lower the onset of diseases. In this regard, Phoenix dactylifera or date fruit is an important source of functional carbohydrates and bioactive compounds for their use as functional foods. The major functional carbohydrate in date fruit are in the form of dietary fiber, such as β-glucan, cellulose and fructans along with other bioactive compounds. Additionally, it is also a good source of other important nutrients such as sugars, minerals, along with minor quantities of proteins and lipids. Due to these functional compounds, date fruit have shown a wide range of pharmaceutical properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective and anticancer. This review provides latest information regarding functional and nutraceutical carbohydrates of date fruits along-with mechanism of action on different diseases reported in recent years. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This will provide information to food industries for the development of innovative food products by using date fruit. Moreover, bioactive components from date fruit may prove to enhance global health and wellness. However, further research is needed on clinical trials for the development of functional food products by using date fruit for functional foods and pharmaceutical applications.

The non-covalent interactions between whey protein and various food functional ingredients

In daily diet, Whey protein (WP) is often coexisted with various Food functional ingredients (FFI) such as proteins, polyphenols, polysaccharides and vitamins, which inevitably affect or interact with each other. Generally speaking, they may be interact by two different mechanisms: non-covalent and covalent interactions, of which the former is more common. We reviewed the non-covalent interactions between WP and various FFI, explained the effect of each WP-FFI interaction, and provided possible applications of WP-FFI complex in the food industry. The biological activity, physical and chemical stability of FFI, and the structure and functionalities of WP were enhanced through the non-covalent interactions. The development of non-covalent interactions between WP and FFI provides opportunities for the design of new ingredients and biopolymer complex, which can be applied in different fields. Future research will further focus on the influence of external or environmental factors in the food system and processing methods on interactions.