The enhanced fatty acids flavor release for low-fat cheeses by carrier immobilized lipases on O/W Pickering emulsions

Walnut protein isolate based emulsion as a promising delivery system enhanced lutein bioaccessibility

Lutein, a natural pigment with multiple beneficial bioactivities, faces limitations in food processing due to its instability. In this study, we constructed four modified walnut protein isolate (WNPI) based emulsions as emulsion-based delivery systems (EBDS) for lutein fortification. The modification treatments enhanced the encapsulation efficiency of the WNPI-based EBDS on lutein. The modified WNPI-based EBDS exhibited improved storage and digestive stability, as well as increased lutein delivery capability in simulated gastrointestinal conditions. After in vitro digestion, the lutein retention in the modified WNPI-based EBDS was higher than in the untreated WNPI-based EBDS, with a maximum retention of 49.67 ± 1.10 % achieved after ultrasonic modification. Furthermore, the modified WNPI-based EBDS exhibited an elevated lutein bioaccessibility, reaching a maximum value of 40.49 ± 1.29 % after ultrasonic modification, nearly twice as high as the untreated WNPI-based EBDS. Molecular docking analysis indicated a robust affinity between WNPI and lutein, involving hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Collectively, this study broadens WNPI's application and provides a foundation for fortifying other fat-soluble bioactive substances.

Addressing flavor challenges in reduced-fat dairy products: A review from the perspective of flavor compounds and their improvement strategies

In recent years, the demand for reduced-fat dairy products (RFDPs) has increased rapidly as the health risks associated with high-fat diets have become increasingly apparent. Unfortunately, lowering the fat content in dairy products would reduce the flavor perception of fat. Fat-derived flavor compounds are the main contributor to appealing flavor among dairy products. However, the contribution of fat-derived flavor compounds remains underappreciated among the flavor improvement factors of RFDPs. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the flavor perception mechanism of fat and the profile of fat-derived flavor compounds in dairy products. Furthermore, the characteristics and influencing factors of flavor compound release are discussed. Based on the role of these flavor compounds, this review analyzed the current and potential flavor improvement strategies for RFDPs, including physical processing, lipolysis, microbial applications, and fat replacement. Overall, promoting the synthesis of milk fat characteristic flavor compounds in RFDPs and aligning the release properties of flavor compounds from the RFDPs with those of equivalent full-fat dairy products are two core strategies to improve the flavor of reduced-fat dairy products. In the future, better modulation of the behavior of flavor compounds by various methods is promising to replicate the flavor properties of fat in RFDPs and meet consumer sensory demands.

Solvent Tolerance Improvement of Lipases Enhanced Their Applications: State of the Art

Lipases, crucial catalysts in biochemical synthesis, find extensive applications across industries such as food, medicine, and cosmetics. The efficiency of lipase-catalyzed reactions is significantly influenced by the choice of solvents. Polar organic solvents often result in a decrease, or even loss, of lipase activity. Conversely, nonpolar organic solvents induce excessive rigidity in lipases, thereby affecting their activity. While the advent of new solvents like ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents has somewhat improved the activity and stability of lipases, it fails to address the fundamental issue of lipases' poor solvent tolerance. Hence, the rational design of lipases for enhanced solvent tolerance can significantly boost their industrial performance. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the structural characteristics and properties of lipases in various solvent systems and emphasizes various strategies of protein engineering for non-aqueous media to improve lipases' solvent tolerance. This study provides a theoretical foundation for further enhancing the solvent tolerance and industrial properties of lipases.

General approaches to biopolymer-based Pickering emulsions

Pickering emulsion is a type of emulsion that uses solid particles or colloidal particles as emulsifiers rather than surfactants to adhere at oil-water interface. Pickering emulsions have gathered significant research attention recently due to their excellent stability and wide range of potential uses compared to traditional emulsions. Major advancements have been made in development of innovative Pickering emulsions using different colloidal particles by various techniques including homogenization, emulsification and ultrasonication. Use of biopolymer particles gives Pickering emulsions a more escalating possibilities. In this review paper, we seek to present a critical overview of development in food-grade particles that have been utilized to create Pickering emulsions with a focus on techniques and application of Pickering emulsions. Particularly, we have evaluated protein, lipid, polysaccharide-based particles and microalgal proteins that have emerged in recent years with respect to their potential to stabilize and add novel functionalities to Pickering emulsions. Some preparation methods of Pickering emulsions in brief, applications of Pickering emulsions are also highlighted. Encapsulation and delivery of bioactive compounds, fat substitutes, film formation and catalysis are potential applications of Pickering emulsions. Pickering double emulsions, nutraceutical and bioactive co-delivery, and preparation of porous materials are among research trends of food-grade Pickering emulsions.

Pickering emulsion biocatalysis: Bridging interfacial design with enzymatic reactions

Non-homogeneous enzyme-catalyzed systems are more widely used than homogeneous systems. Distinguished from the conventional biphasic approach, Pickering emulsion stabilized by ultrafine solid particles opens up an innovative platform for biocatalysis. Their vast specific surface area significantly enhances enzyme-substrate interactions, dramatically increasing catalytic efficiency. This review comprehensively explores various aspects of Pickering emulsion biocatalysis, provides insights into the multiple types and mechanisms of its catalysis, and offers strategies for material design, enzyme immobilization, emulsion formation control, and reactor design. Characterization methods are summarized for the determination of drop size, emulsion type, interface morphology, and emulsion potential. Furthermore, recent reports on the design of stimuli-responsive reaction systems are reviewed, enabling the simple control of demulsification. Moreover, the review explores applications of Pickering emulsion in single-step, cascade, and continuous flow reactions and outlines the challenges and future directions for the field. Overall, we provide a review focusing on Pickering emulsions catalysis, which can draw the attention of researchers in the field of catalytic system design, further empowering next-generation bioprocessing.

Cation Triggered Self-Assembly of α-Lactalbumin Nanotubes

Metal ions play a dual role in biological systems. Although they actively participate in vital life processes, they may contribute to protein aggregation and misfolding and thus contribute to development of diseases and other pathologies. In nanofabrication, metal ions mediate the formation of nanostructures with diverse properties. Here, we investigated the self-assembly of α-lactalbumin into nanotubes induced by coordination with metal ions, screened among the series Mn2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Cd2+, and Au3+. Our results revealed that the affinity of metal ions toward hydrolyzed α-lactalbumin peptides not only impacts the kinetics of nanotube formation but also influences their length and rigidity. These findings expand our understanding of supramolecular assembly processes in protein-based materials and pave the way for designing novel materials such as metallogels in biochip and biosensor applications.

Peptide Supramolecular Self-Assembly: Regulatory Mechanism, Functional Properties, and Its Application in Foods

Peptide self-assembly, due to its diverse supramolecular nanostructures, excellent biocompatibility, and bright application prospects, has received wide interest from researchers in the fields of biomedicine and green life technology and the food industry. Driven by thermodynamics and regulated by dynamics, peptides spontaneously assemble into supramolecular structures with different functional properties. According to the functional properties derived from peptide self-assembly, applications and development directions in foods can be found and explored. Therefore, in this review, the regulatory mechanism is elucidated from the perspective of self-assembly thermodynamics and dynamics, and the functional properties and application progress of peptide self-assembly in foods are summarized, with a view to more adaptive application scenarios of peptide self-assembly in the food industry.

Enzymatic Synthesis of Structured Lipids Enriched with Medium- and Long-Chain Triacylglycerols via Pickering Emulsion-Assisted Interfacial Catalysis: A Preliminary Exploration

Medium- and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT), as a novel functional lipid, is valuable due to its special nutritional properties. Its low content in natural resources and inefficient synthesis during preparation have limited its practical applications. In this study, we developed an effective Pickering emulsion interfacial catalysis system (PE system) for the enzymatic synthesis of MLCT by trans-esterification. Lipase NS 40086 served simultaneously as a catalyst and a solid emulsifier to stabilize the Pickering emulsion. Benefitting from the sufficient oil-water interface, the obtained PE system exhibited outstanding catalytic efficiency, achieving 77.5% of MLCT content within 30 min, 26% higher than that of a water-free system. The Km value (0.259 mM) and activation energy (14.45 kJ mol-1) were 6.8-fold and 1.6-fold lower than those of the water-free system, respectively. The kinetic parameters as well as the molecular dynamics simulation and the tunnel analysis implied that the oil-water interface enhanced the binding between substrate and lipase and thus boosted catalytic efficiency. The conformational changes in the lipase were further explored by FT-IR. This method could give a novel strategy for enhancing lipase activity and the design of efficient catalytic systems to produce added-value lipids. This work will open a new methodology for the enzymatic synthesis of structured lipids.

Protein Nanotubes as Advanced Material Platforms and Delivery Systems

Protein nanotubes (PNTs) as state-of-the-art nanocarriers are promising for various potential applications both in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Derived from edible starting sources like α-lactalbumin, lysozyme, and ovalbumin, PNTs bear properties of biocompatibility and biodegradability. Their large specific surface area and hydrophobic core facilitate chemical modification and loading of bioactive substances, respectively. Moreover, their enhanced permeability and penetration ability across biological barriers such as intestinal mucus, extracellular matrix, and thrombus clot, make it promising platforms for health-related applications. Most importantly, their simple preparation processes enable large-scale production, supporting applications in the biomedical and nanotechnological fields. Understanding the self-assembly principles is crucial for controlling their morphology, size, and shape, and thus provides the ground to a multitude of applications. Here, the current state-of-the-art of PNTs including their building materials, physicochemical properties, and self-assembly mechanisms are comprehensively reviewed. The advantages and limitations, as well as challenges and prospects for their successful applications in biomaterial and pharmaceutical sectors are then discussed and highlighted. Potential cytotoxicity of PNTs and the need of regulations as critical factors for enabling in vivo applications are also highlighted. In the end, a brief summary and future prospects for PNTs as advanced platforms and delivery systems are included.

Role of Clay Substrate Molecular Interactions in Some Dairy Technology Applications

The use of clay materials in dairy technology requires a multidisciplinary approach that allows correlating clay efficiency in the targeted application to its interactions with milk components. For profitability reasons, natural clays and clay minerals can be used as low-cost and harmless food-compatible materials for improving key processes such as fermentation and coagulation. Under chemical stability conditions, clay materials can act as adsorbents, since anionic clay minerals such as hydrotalcite already showed effectiveness in the continuous removal of lactic acid via in situ anion exchange during fermentation and ex situ regeneration by ozone. Raw and modified bentonites and smectites have also been used as adsorbents in aflatoxin retention and as acidic species in milk acidification and coagulation. Aflatoxins and organophilic milk components, particularly non-charged caseins around their isoelectric points, are expected to display high affinity towards high silica regions on the clay surface. Here, clay interactions with milk components are key factors that govern adsorption and surface physicochemical processes. Knowledge about these interactions and changes in clay behavior according to the pH and chemical composition of the liquid media and, more importantly, clay chemical stability is an essential requirement for understanding process improvements in dairy technology, both upstream and downstream of milk production. The present paper provides a comprehensive review with deep analysis and synthesis of the main findings of studies in this area. This may be greatly useful for mastering milk processing efficiency and envisaging new prospects in dairy technology.

Exploring the synergistic effects of enzyme@lactoferrin hybrid on biomimetic immobilization: Unveiling the impact on catalytic efficiency

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have gained attention as a hopeful material for enzyme immobilization due to their advantageous characteristics, for instance, high surface area and easy construction conditions. Nonetheless, the confinement effect and competing coordination often lead to partial or complete inactivation of the immobilized enzymes. In this study, we present a novel strategy, the lactoferrin-boosted one-pot embedding approach, which efficiently connects enzymes with lactoferrin (LF) hybrid Graphene Oxide (GO)//Pt Nanoparticles/MOF-74 (referred to as enzyme@LF@rGO/PtNP@MOF-74). This approach demonstrates a high embedding efficiency. By employing a hybrid of LF and GO/Pt Nanoparticles as synchronous ligands for Zn-MOF-74, we provide a suitable environment for enzyme immobilization, resulting in enhanced enzymatic activity. The lipase@LF@rGO/PtNP@MOF-74 exhibits improved stability and resistance to organic solvents and significantly enhanced in thermal stability of the lipase@LF@rGO/PtNP@MOF-74 comparing to the free enzyme. The lipase@LF@rGO/PtNP@MOF-74 displayed excellent long-term storage stability, which could protect more than 80 % of the initial activity for 8 weeks. Besides, the lipase@LF@rGO/PtNP@MOF-74 had high reusability, which showed a high degree of activity (more than 75 %) after 20 cycles. As a bio-macromolecule, lactoferrin possesses bio-affinity, creating a favorable microenvironment for enzymes and minimizing the impact of external factors on their conformation and activity during bio-macromolecule utilization.

A Comprehensive Review of Self-Assembled Food Protein-Derived Multicomponent Peptides: From Forming Mechanism and Structural Diversity to Applications

Food protein-derived multicomponent peptides (FPDMPs) are a natural blend of numerous peptides with various bioactivities and multiple active sites that can assume several energetically favorable conformations in solutions. The remarkable structural characteristics and functional attributes of FPDMPs make them promising codelivery carriers that can coassemble with different bioactive ingredients to induce multidimensional structures, such as fibrils, nanotubes, and nanospheres, thereby producing specific health benefits. This review offers a prospective analysis of FPDMPs-based self-assembly nanostructures, focusing on the mechanism of formation of self-assembled FPDMPs, the internal and external stimuli affecting peptide self-assembly, and their potential applications. In particular, we introduce the exciting prospect of constructing functional materials through precursor template-induced self-assembly of FPDMPs, which combine the bioactivity and self-assembly capacity of peptides and could dramatically broaden the functional utility of peptide-based materials.

Fabrication of Pickering emulsions stabilized by citrus pectin modified with β-cyclodextrin and its application in 3D printing

Pickering emulsions stabilized by polysaccharide particles have received increasing attention because of their potential applications in three-dimensional (3D) printing. In this study, the citrus pectins (citrus tachibana, shaddock, lemon, orange) modified with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) were used to stabilize Pickering emulsions reaching the requirements of 3D printing. In terms of pectin chemical structure, the steric hindrance provided by the RG I regions was more conducive to the stability of the complex particles. The modification of pectin by β-CD provided the complexes a better double wettability (91.14 ± 0.14°-109.43 ± 0.22°) and a more negative ζ-potential, which was more beneficial for complexes to anchor at oil-water interface. In addition, the rheological properties, texture properties and stability of the emulsions were more responsive to the ratios of pectin/β-CD (R_β/C). The results showed that the emulsions stabilized at a φ = 65 % and a R_β/C = 2:2 achieved the requirements (shear thinning behavior, self-supporting ability, and stability) of 3D printing. Furthermore, the application in 3D printing demonstrated that the emulsions under the optimal condition (φ = 65 % and R_β/C = 2:2) displayed excellent printing appearance, especially for the emulsions stabilized by β-CD/LP particles. This study provides a basis for the selection of polysaccharide-based particles to prepare 3D printing inks which may be utilized in food manufacturing.

The preparation of Diacylglycerol-rich soybean oil by acetylated modification of arachin nanoparticles for W/O Pickering emulsion system

Pickering emulsion catalytic system (PEC) stabilized by nanoparticles is an efficient catalytic platform. Herein, a high-performance PEC was constructed by acetylated modification of arachin nanoparticles (AAPs). The results showed the pI of arachin was decreased from pH 5.5 to pH 3.5. The surface hydrophobicity index was significantly increased (from 56.28 ± 4.23 to 120.77 ± 0.79) after acetylated modification. The three-phase contact angle of AAPs was 91.20 ± 0.98°. AAPs were used as lipase immobilization carriers to increase the activity of free lipase fabricating lipase-AAPs. The immobilization efficiency and activity of lipase-AAPs were 12.95 ± 0.03% and 1.74 ± 0.07 U/mg, respectively. Enzymatic reaction kinetics showed that V_m of lipase-AAPs was twice of free lipase. K_m was 1/5 of free lipase. The catalytic efficiency of PEC to prepare DAG was 2.36 times of biphasic catalytic system (BCS). This work provided a promising way to promote the efficiency of DAG preparation.

Immobilization of lipase on hydrophobic MOF synthesized simultaneously with oleic acid and application in hydrolysis of natural oils for improving unsaturated fatty acid production

The hydrolysis of natural oils (vegetable oils and fats) by lipase has significant applications in food and medicine. However, free lipases are usually sensitive to temperature, pH and chemical reagents in aqueous solutions, which hinders their widespread industrial application. Excitingly, immobilized lipases have been widely reported to overcome these problems. Herein, inspired by lipase interface activation, a hydrophobic Zr-MOF (UiO-66-NH₂-OA) with oleic acid was synthesized for the first time in an emulsion consisting of oleic acid and water, and the Aspergillus oryzae lipase (AOL) was immobilized onto the UiO-66-NH₂-OA through hydrophobic interaction and electrostatic interaction to obtain immobilized lipase (AOL/UiO-66-NH₂-OA). ¹H NMR and FT-IR data indicated that oleic acid was conjugated with the 2-amino-1,4-benzene dicarboxylate (BDC-NH₂) by amidation reaction. As a result, the V_max and K_cat values of AOL/UiO-66-NH₂-OA were 179.61 μM﹒min^-1 and 8.27 s^-1, which were 8.56 and 12.92 times higher than those of the free enzyme, respectively, due to the interfacial activation. After treated at 70 °C for 120 min, the immobilized lipase maintained 52 % of its original activity, but free AOL only retained 15 %. Significantly, the yield of fatty acids by the immobilized lipase reached 98.3 % and still exceeded 82 % after seven times of recycling.

Enzyme Immobilization Technologies and Industrial Applications

Enzymes play vital roles in diverse industrial sectors and are essential components of many industrial products. Immobilized enzymes possess higher resistance to environmental changes and can be recovered/recycled easily when compared to the free forms. The primary benefit of immobilization is protecting the enzymes from the harsh environmental conditions (e.g., elevated temperatures, extreme pH values, etc.). The immobilized enzymes can be utilized in various large-scale industries, e.g., medical, food, detergent, textile, and pharmaceutical industries, besides being used in water treatment plants. According to the required application, a suitable enzyme immobilization technique and suitable carrier materials are chosen. Enzyme immobilization techniques involve covalent binding, encapsulation, entrapment, adsorption, etc. This review mainly covers enzyme immobilization by various techniques and their usage in different industrial applications starting from 1992 until 2022. It also focuses on the multiscale operation of immobilized enzymes to maximize yields of certain products. Lastly, the severe consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic on global enzyme production is briefly discussed.

A self-crosslinking nanogel scaffold for enhanced catalytic efficiency and stability

We report a facile and efficient approach to prepare multifunctional bioinspired platforms under mild conditions that offer increased catalytic efficiency and stability.

Progress in the Application of Food-Grade Emulsions

The detailed investigation of food-grade emulsions, which possess considerable structural and functional advantages, remains ongoing to enhance our understanding of these dispersion systems and to expand their application scope. This work reviews the applications of food-grade emulsions on the dispersed phase, interface structure, and macroscopic scales; further, it discusses the corresponding factors of influence, the selection and design of food dispersion systems, and the expansion of their application scope. Specifically, applications on the dispersed-phase scale mainly include delivery by soft matter carriers and auxiliary extraction/separation, while applications on the scale of the interface structure involve biphasic systems for enzymatic catalysis and systems that can influence substance digestion/absorption, washing, and disinfection. Future research on these scales should therefore focus on surface-active substances, real interface structure compositions, and the design of interface layers with antioxidant properties. By contrast, applications on the macroscopic scale mainly include the design of soft materials for structured food, in addition to various material applications and other emerging uses. In this case, future research should focus on the interactions between emulsion systems and food ingredients, the effects of food process engineering, safety, nutrition, and metabolism. Considering the ongoing research in this field, we believe that this review will be useful for researchers aiming to explore the applications of food-grade emulsions.

Modulation of Fabrication and Nutraceutical Delivery Performance of Ovalbumin-Stabilized Oleogel-Based Nanoemulsions via Complexation with Gum Arabic

Protein–polysaccharide complexes, which involve Maillard-type protein–polysaccharide conjugates and electrostatic protein–polysaccharide complexes, have the potential to stabilize oleogel-based nanoemulsions for nutraceutical delivery. Here, ovalbumin (OVA) and gum arabic (GA) were used to prepare OVA–GA conjugate (OGC) and OVA–GA mixture (OGM), followed by the fabrication of astaxanthin-loaded oleogel-based nanoemulsions. Carnauba wax (5% w/w) and rice bran oil were mixed to prepare food-grade oleogel. The successful preparation of OGC was verified by means of SDS-PAGE analysis and free amino groups determination. OGC endowed oleogel-based nanoemulsions with smaller emulsion droplets and higher stability during 30-day storage, implying more outstanding emulsifying capability than OGM. Both OGC-stabilized nanoemulsions and OGM-stabilized nanoemulsions could enhance the extent of lipolysis and the bioaccessibility of astaxanthin compared with oleogel. Meanwhile, OGC exhibited significantly better than OGM, which indicated that OGC-stabilized oleogel-based nanoemulsions possessed more desirable nutraceutical delivery performance than OGM-stabilized oleogel-based nanoemulsions. This study may fill a gap in the influence of different protein–polysaccharide complexes on oleogel-based nanoemulsions and contribute to deeper insights about novel oleogel-based nanoemulsions for their applications in the food industry.

Recent Advances on Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by Diverse Edible Particles: Stability Mechanism and Applications

Pickering emulsions, which are stabilized by particles, have gained considerable attention recently because of their extreme stability and functionality. A food-grade particle is preferred by the food or pharmaceutical industries because of their noteworthy natural benefits (renewable resources, ease of preparation, excellent biocompatibility, and unique interfacial properties). Different edible particles are reported by recent publications with distinct shapes resulting from the inherent properties of raw materials and fabrication methods. Furthermore, they possess distinct interfacial properties and functionalities. Therefore, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in the stabilization of Pickering emulsions using diverse food-grade particles, as well as their possible applications in the food industry.

Low-Content Pre-Emulsified Safflower Seed Oil Enhances the Quality and Flavor of the Nemipterus Virgatus Surimi Gel

Surimi-based products occupy an important position in the aquatic product processing industry. To enhance the quality and flavor of surimi-based products, the effects of pre-emulsified safflower seed oil on the texture, water-holding capacity (WHC), microstructure, and flavor of Nemipterus virgatus surimi gel was evaluated. The texture and whiteness of the gel were improved, and the WHC increased (p < 0.05) as the content of safflower seed oil increased up to 2 mL per 100 g surimi. Furthermore, the drops of pre-emulsified safflower seed oils with an average diameter of less than 0.10 μm were evenly distributed in gel matrix. Microstructure and infrared spectroscopy analyses indicated that low-content pre-emulsified safflower seed oil acted as filler particles to occupy void spaces, resulting in gel exhibiting a dense network structure. Volatile analysis showed the gel containing pre-emulsified oil enriched volatile compounds, mainly resulting from the oxidation and decomposition of oils by the activation of lipoxygenase, which synergistically contributes to unique flavors of gel. Consequently, low-content pre-emulsified safflower seed oil can used to enhance the quality and flavor of N. virgatus surimi-based products. These findings are especially relevant to the current growing interest in low-fat and high-protein diets.

Expression and characterization of a novel lipase from Bacillus licheniformis NCU CS-5 for application in enhancing fatty acids flavor release for low-fat cheeses

A novel lipase from Bacillus licheniformis NCU CS-5 was expressed in different Escherichia coli cells. The recombinant enzyme achieved a high activity (161.74 U/mL) with protein concentration of 0.27 mg/mL under optimal conditions at the large-scale expression of 12 h. The recombinant lipase showed optimal activity at 40 ℃ and pH 10.0, and maintained more than 80% relative activity after 96 h of incubation at pH 9.0-10.0. This typical alkaline lipase was activated under medium temperature conditions (30 and 45 ℃ for 96 h). The lipase exhibited a degree of adaptability in various organic solvents and metal ions, and showed high specificity towards triglycerides with short and medium chain fatty acids. Among different substrates, the lipase showed the strongest binding affinity towards pNPP (Km = 0.674 mM, Vmax = 950.196 μM/min). In the experiments of its application in enhancing fatty acids flavor release for low-fat cheeses, the lipase was found to hydrolyze cheeses and mainly increase the contents of butyric acid, hexanoic acid, caprylic acid and decanoic acid. The results from NMR and GC provided the possibility of enhancing fatty acids flavor released from low-fat cheeses by the lipolysis method.

Current trends in flavor encapsulation: A comprehensive review of emerging encapsulation techniques, flavour release, and mathematical modelling

Food flavors are volatile compounds that impact the human sensory perception profoundly and find extensive applications in various food products. Because of their volatility and high sensitivity to pH, temperature, oxidation, and external conditions, they require adequate protection to last for a longer duration. Encapsulation plays a critical role in preserving food flavors by enhancing their thermal and oxidative stability, overcoming volatility limitations, and regulating their rapid release with improved bioavailability in food products. The current review focuses on the recent developments in food flavor encapsulation techniques, such as electrospinning/spraying, cyclodextrin inclusion complexes, coacervation, and yeast cell micro-carriers. The review also comprehensively discusses the role of encapsulants in achieving controlled flavor release, the mechanisms involved, and the mathematical modelling for flavor release. Specific well-established nanoencapsulation techniques render better encapsulation efficiency and controlled release of flavor compounds. The review examined specific emerging methods for flavor encapsulation, such as yeast cell encapsulation, which require further exploration and development. This article provides readers with up-to-date information on different encapsulation processes and coating methods used for flavor encapsulation.

Current Status and Future Perspectives of Supports and Protocols for Enzyme Immobilization

The market for industrial enzymes has witnessed constant growth, which is currently around 7% a year, projected to reach $10.5 billion in 2024. Lipases are hydrolase enzymes naturally responsible for triglyceride hydrolysis. They are the most expansively used industrial biocatalysts, with wide application in a broad range of industries. However, these biocatalytic processes are usually limited by the low stability of the enzyme, the half-life time, and the processes required to solve these problems are complex and lack application feasibility at the industrial scale. Emerging technologies create new materials for enzyme carriers and sophisticate the well-known immobilization principles to produce more robust, eco-friendlier, and cheaper biocatalysts. Therefore, this review discusses the trending studies and industrial applications of the materials and protocols for lipase immobilization, analyzing their advantages and disadvantages. Finally, it summarizes the current challenges and potential alternatives for lipases at the industrial level.

Physical properties of UHT light cream: impact of the high-pressure homogenization and addition of hydrocolloids

The beneficial effects of a healthy diet on the quality of life have prompted the food industry to develop low-fat variants, but fat content directly affects the physicochemical and sensory properties of food products. The utilization of high-pressure homogenization (HP) and incorporation of hydrocolloids have been suggested as strategies to improve the physical stability and rheological properties of light cream. Thus, this study aims to analyze the associated effect of high-pressure homogenization (80 MPa) and three different hydrocolloids: microcrystalline cellulose, locust bean gum and xanthan gum, on emulsion stability and rheological properties of ultra-high-temperature (UHT) light cream (ULC) with a 15% w/w fat content. The stability of ULC was determined by the ζ potential of oil droplets and emulsion stability percentage. Rheological characterization was based on flow behavior tests and dynamic oscillatory measurements, which were carried out in a rheometer. Results showed that the high-pressure homogenization process did not influence the emulsion stability of the treatments. Moreover, the hydrocolloids added to systems present weak interactions with milk proteins since all ULC showed macroscopical phase separation. The samples presented the same rheological behavior and were classified as pseudoplastic fluids (n < 1). ULC treated at 80 MPa was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) more consistent than the treatments at 20 MPa. All ULC showed a predominant elastic behavior (G' > G″), and a remarkable increase in both G' and G″ at 80 MPa. The results presented in this study highlight the potential of HP for altering some rheological characteristics of UHT light cream, for example, to increase its consistency. These results are important for the dairy industry and ingredient suppliers, in the standardization of UHT light cream and/or to develop low-fat products.