The development of natural and designed protein nanocages for encapsulation and delivery of active compounds

Rationalized landscape on protein-based cancer nanomedicine: Recent progress and challenges

The clinical advancement of protein-based nanomedicine has revolutionized medical professionals' perspectives on cancer therapy. Protein-based nanoparticles have been exploited as attractive vehicles for cancer nanomedicine due to their unique properties derived from naturally biomacromolecules with superior biocompatibility and pharmaceutical features. Furthermore, the successful translation of Abraxane™ (paclitaxel-based albumin nanoparticles) into clinical application opened a new avenue for protein-based cancer nanomedicine. In this mini-review article, we demonstrate the rational design and recent progress of protein-based nanoparticles along with their applications in cancer diagnosis and therapy from recent literature. The current challenges and hurdles that hinder clinical application of protein-based nanoparticles are highlighted. Finally, future perspectives for translating protein-based nanoparticles into clinic are identified.

Multifaceted Applications of Ferritin Nanocages in Delivering Metal Ions, Bioactive Compounds, and Enzymes: A Comprehensive Review

Ferritin, a distinctive iron-storage protein, possesses a unique cage-like nanoscale structure that enables it to encapsulate and deliver a wide range of biomolecules. Recent advances prove that ferritin can serve as an efficient 8 nm diameter carrier for various bioinorganic nutrients, such as minerals, bioactive polyphenols, and enzymes. This review offers a comprehensive summary of ferritin's structural features from different sources and emphasizes its functions in iron supplementation, calcium delivery, single- and coencapsulation of polyphenols, and enzyme package. Additionally, the influence of innovative food processing technologies, including manothermosonication, pulsed electric field, and atmospheric cold plasma, on the structure and function of ferritin are examined. Furthermore, the limitations and prospects of ferritin in food and nutritional applications are discussed. The exploration of ferritin as a multifunctional protein with the capacity to load various biomolecules is crucial to fully harnessing its potential in food applications.

Manufacturing of non-viral protein nanocages for biotechnological and biomedical applications

Protein nanocages are highly ordered nanometer scale architectures, which are typically formed by homo- or hetero-self-assembly of multiple monomers into symmetric structures of different size and shape. The intrinsic characteristics of protein nanocages make them very attractive and promising as a biological nanomaterial. These include, among others, a high surface/volume ratio, multi-functionality, ease to modify or manipulate genetically or chemically, high stability, mono-dispersity, and biocompatibility. Since the beginning of the investigation into protein nanocages, several applications were conceived in a variety of areas such as drug delivery, vaccine development, bioimaging, biomineralization, nanomaterial synthesis and biocatalysis. The ability to generate large amounts of pure and well-folded protein assemblies is one of the keys to transform nanocages into clinically valuable products and move biomedical applications forward. This calls for the development of more efficient biomanufacturing processes and for the setting up of analytical techniques adequate for the quality control and characterization of the biological function and structure of nanocages. This review concisely covers and overviews the progress made since the emergence of protein nanocages as a new, next-generation class of biologics. A brief outline of non-viral protein nanocages is followed by a presentation of their main applications in the areas of bioengineering, biotechnology, and biomedicine. Afterwards, we focus on a description of the current processes used in the manufacturing of protein nanocages with particular emphasis on the most relevant aspects of production and purification. The state-of-the-art on current characterization techniques is then described and future alternative or complementary approaches in development are also discussed. Finally, a critical analysis of the limitations and drawbacks of the current manufacturing strategies is presented, alongside with the identification of the major challenges and bottlenecks.

Genipin-mediated subunit-subunit crosslinking of ferritin nanocages: Structure, properties, and its application for food bioactive compound sealing

Ferritin proteins are promising nano-carriers for bioactive compound delivery. However, the disassembly properties under acidic/alkaline conditions pose risks of cargo leakage. Herein, genipin-mediated chemical crosslinking method was provided as an alternative and effective strategy to construct robust ferritin nanocarrier through controlled-intramolecular conjugation. As indicated by SDS-/Native- PAGE, the crosslinking degree gradually increased with incubating time prolonging. CD results showed that the cross-linking would decrease α-helix content from 78.4 % to 52.7 % upon 6 h incubation. However, TEM images showed that the genipin-modification has subtle influence on its shell-like structure. Remarkably, the cross-linking can be well controlled by intramolecular subunit-subunit conjugation rather than intermolecular conjugation, giving an excellent monodispersity. Importantly, the covalent cross-linking can tight neighboring subunits and inhibit its disassociation, finally inhibiting the leakage of encapsulated-cargos from ferritin cavity under acidic environments. Such findings suggested that the genipin-mediated cross-linking strategy can fabricate robust nano-carriers for bioactive compound delivery.

Column-free purification of an artificial protein nanocage, TIP60

Protein nanocages, which have inner cavities and surface pores, are attractive materials for various applications, such as in catalysts and medicine. Recently, we produced an artificial protein nanocage, TIP60, and demonstrated its potential as a stimuli-responsive nanocarrier. In the present study, we report a simple purification method for TIP60 that can replace time-consuming and costly affinity chromatography purification. TIP60, which has an anionic surface charge, aggregated at mildly acidic pH and redissolved at neutral pH, maintaining its cage structure. This pH-responsive reversible precipitation allowed us to purify TIP60 from soluble fractions of the E. coli cell lysate by controlling the pH. Compared with conventional Ni-NTA column purification, the pH-responsive precipitation method provided purified TIP60 with similar purity (∼80%) and higher yield. This precipitation purification method should facilitate the large-scale investigation and practical use of TIP60 nanocages.

Autophagy modulation in breast cancer utilizing nanomaterials and nanoparticles

Autophagy regenerates cellular nutrients, recycles metabolites, and maintains hemostasis through multistep signaling pathways, in conjunction with lysosomal degradation mechanisms. In tumor cells, autophagy has been shown to play a dual role as both tumor suppressor and tumor promoter, leading to the discovery of new therapeutic strategies for cancer. Therefore, regulation of autophagy is essential during cancer progression. In this regard, the use of nanoparticles (NPs) is a promising technique in the clinic to modulate autophagy pathways. Here, we summarized the importance of breast cancer worldwide, and we discussed its classification, current treatment strategies, and the strengths and weaknesses of available treatments. We have also described the application of NPs and nanocarriers (NCs) in breast cancer treatment and their capability to modulate autophagy. Then the advantages and disadvantaged of NPs in cancer therapy along with future applications will be disscussed. The purpose of this review is to provide up-to-date information on NPs used in breast cancer treatment and their impacts on autophagy pathways for researchers.

Dual Modification of Artificial Protein Cage

Chemical modifications of proteins confer new functions on them or modulate their original functions. Although various approaches are developed for modifications, modifications of the two different reactive sites of proteins by different chemicals are still challenging. In this chapter, we show a simple approach for selective modifications of both interior and exterior surfaces of protein nanocages by two different chemicals based on a molecular size filter effect of the surface pores.

Assembly of Protein Cages for Drug Delivery

Nanoparticles (NPs) have been widely used as target delivery vehicles for therapeutic goods; however, compared with inorganic and organic nanomaterials, protein nanomaterials have better biocompatibility and can self-assemble into highly ordered cage-like structures, which are more favorable for applications in targeted drug delivery. In this review, we concentrate on the typical protein cage nanoparticles drugs encapsulation processes, such as drug fusion expression, diffusion, electrostatic contact, covalent binding, and protein cage disassembly/recombination. The usage of protein cage nanoparticles in biomedicine is also briefly discussed. These materials can be utilized to transport small molecules, peptides, siRNA, and other medications for anti-tumor, contrast, etc.

Ferritin nanocage based delivery vehicles: From single-, co- to compartmentalized- encapsulation of bioactive or nutraceutical compounds

Bioactive or nutraceutical ingredients have been widely used in pursuit of health and well-being. However, the environmental instability, poor solubility and bioavailability, and unspecific delivery highly limited their practical values. By virtue of the unique shell-like structure, definite disassembly/reassembly behavior, and excellent safety profile of ferritin protein, it stands out among of various nano-materials and is emerging as one of the most promising vehicles for the encapsulation and delivery of bioactive ingredients or drugs. In this review, we present a systematic overview of recent advances of ferritin-based delivery systems from single-encapsulation, co-encapsulation, to compartmentalized-encapsulation of bioactive ingredients or drugs. Different encapsulation strategies for cargo loading as well as their advantages and drawbacks have been critically reviewed. This study emphasized the importance of the construction of compartmentalized delivery systems through the usage of ferritin nanocages, which exhibit great potential for facilitating the synergistic functionality of different types of cargos. Lastly, the applications of ferritin nanocages for physicochemical improvements and functionality achievements of loaded cargos are summarized. In conclusion, ferritin protein nanocages not only are excellent nanocarriers, but also can act as"multi-seated" vehicles for co-encapsulation and compartmentalized encapsulation of different cargos simultaneously.

Amelioration of Ovalbumin-Induced Food Allergy in Mice by Targeted Rectal and Colonic Delivery of Cyanidin-3-O-Glucoside

Targeted rectal and colonic delivery is an effective strategy to exploit the biological functions of polyphenols. This work investigated the anti-food allergy (FA) activity of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) delivered by enteric sodium alginate in vivo. The results showed that through targeted rectal and colonic delivery, the C3G showed better results in ameliorating clinical allergic symptoms, diarrhea, and serological indicators including ovalbumin-specific IgE, histamine, and mast cell protease-1. The C3G was more efficient in enhancing the intestinal epithelial barrier by up-regulating the tight junction protein expression and promoting secretory IgA and β-defensin secretion. The improved bioactivity in regulating T helper (Th)1/Th2 immune balance in the intestinal mucosa was also observed. Compared with the intestinal microbiota structure of the model group, targeted rectal and colonic delivery of C3G was able to bring the abundance of Bacteroidota and Firmicutes close to the levels found in normal mice. Furthermore, there was an evident increase in beneficial bacteria in the intestinal flora, such as Lactobacillus and Odoribacter, and a decrease in pathogenic bacteria like Helicobacter and Turicibacter. Therefore, the anti-FA activity of C3G could be increased via targeted rectal and colonic delivery, while the mechanism might be attributed to the regulation of intestinal microecological homeostasis.

A review of factors affecting the stability of zein-based nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds: from construction to application

Zein-based nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds have positive prospects in the food industry, but an important limiting factor for development is colloidal instability. Currently, extensive researches are focused on solving the instability of zein nanoparticles, but since the beginning of the studies, there has not been a summary of the factors affecting the stability of zein-based nanoparticles. In the present work, the factors were reviewed comprehensively from the perspective of carrier construction and application evaluation. The former mainly includes type, quantity, and characteristics of biopolymer, the mass ratio of biopolymer/bioactive compound to zein, blending sequence of biopolymer, and location of encapsulated bioactive compounds. The latter mainly includes pH, heating, ionic strength, storage, freeze-drying, and gastrointestinal digestion. The former is the prerequisite for the success of the latter. The challenge is that stability research is limited to the laboratory level, and it is difficult to ensure that the stability results are suitable for commercial food matrices due to their complexity. At the laboratory level, the future trends are the influence of external energy and the cross-complexity and uniformity of stability research. The review is expected to provide systematic understanding and guidance for the development of zein-based nanoparticles stability.

Supersmall Dendritic Mesoporous Silica Nanospheres as Antioxidant Nanocarriers for Pickering Emulsifiers

Encapsulation of flavor and aromatic compounds in emulsions holds great potential for development of novel formulations in food applications. In this paper, supersmall dendritic mesoporous silica nanospheres (DMSNs) were fabricated by the one-pot strategy. The morphologies of DMSNs were directly tuned in terms of diameter from 35 ± 2 to 85 ± 4 nm. The obtained DMSNs are nanocarriers for hydrophilic or hydrophobic antioxidants with superior loading performance. Both DMSNs and antioxidant-loaded ones can emulsify the flavor and aromatic compounds yielding stable Pickering emulsions with droplets of approximately 2 μm in diameter. The emulsions possess excellent physical stability for at least half a year. More importantly, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-olfactometry (GC-MS-O) analysis shows that antioxidant-loaded DMSNs provide outstanding protective functionalities to the encapsulated flavoring oil. A universality study reveals that DMSNs are an ideal platform for stable Pickering emulsions for aromatic compounds. Our design could provide a new path for flavor and sensitive bioactives for codelivery with excellent stability in food, medicine, cosmetics, etc.

A Review on Polymer and Lipid-Based Nanocarriers and Its Application to Nano-Pharmaceutical and Food-Based Systems

Recently, owing to well-controlled release, enhanced distribution and increased permeability, nanocarriers used for alternative drug and food-delivery strategies have received increasingly attentions. Nanocarriers have attracted a large amount of interest as potential carriers of various bioactive molecules for multiple applications. Drug and food-based delivery via polymeric-based nanocarriers and lipid-based nanocarriers has been widely investigated. Nanocarriers, especially liposomes, are more and more widely used in the area of novel nano-pharmaceutical or food-based design. Herein, we aimed to discuss the recent advancement of different surface-engineered nanocarriers type, along with cutting-edge applications for food and nanomedicine and highlight the alternative of phytochemical as nanocarrier. Additionally, safety concern of nanocarriers was also highlighted.

Bionanomaterials based on protein self-assembly: Design and applications in biotechnology

Elegant protein assembly to generate new biomaterials undergoes extremely rapid development for wide extension of biotechnology applications, which can be a powerful tool not only for creating nanomaterials but also for advancing understanding of the structure of life. Unique biological properties of proteins bestow these artificial biomaterials diverse functions that can permit them to be applied in encapsulation, bioimaging, biocatalysis, biosensors, photosynthetic apparatus, electron transport, magnetogenetic applications, vaccine development and antibodies design. This review gives a perspective view of the latest advances in the construction of protein-based nanomaterials. We initially start with distinguishable, specific interactions to construct sundry nanomaterials through protein self-assembly and concisely expound the assembly mechanism from the design strategy. And then, the design and construction of 0D, 1D, 2D, 3D protein assembled nanomaterials are especially highlighted. Furthermore, the potential applications have been discussed in detail. Overall, this review will illustrate how to fabricate highly sophisticated nanomaterials oriented toward applications in biotechnology based on the rules of supramolecular chemistry.