Consumer perception of salt-reduced potato chips: Sensory strategies, effect of labeling and individual health orientation

Emotional response to healthier foods: Influence of culture and health consciousness

Sugar, salt, and fat content in processed products are important concerns for consumers. Hence, alternative "healthy" versions of conventional foods such as chocolate, potato chips, and yogurt are offered. This work aimed to define the emotional response of consumers from different cultural backgrounds (Spain vs. Brazil) evoked by healthier versions of conventional products and the relationship between hedonic responses and health consciousness. A total of 186 Brazilian and 152 Spanish consumers participated in this online cross-cultural study. Participants answered a Health Consciousness Questionnaire and an emotional check-all-that-applies questionnaire using picture stimuli of conventional chocolate, potato chips, and yogurt and their healthier versions with less sugar, salt, and fat content, respectively. The Brazilians' emotional responses were more diverse for all stimuli compared to the Spaniards'. However, participants from both cultures rated an average of "slightly agree" on the health consciousness scale; a higher level of consumption, liking, and willingness to buy; and a higher frequency of positive emotional terms for the stimuli of conventional products compared to their healthier versions. A higher frequency of evocation of "active" is strongly associated with higher levels of health consciousness. Strategic actions by the food industry and government must consider cultural, emotional, and health-conscious factors to encourage the consumption of healthier foods. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Food manufacturers can use the information obtained from this study to create healthier versions of their products that appeal to consumers' emotional responses and health consciousness levels. The findings can assist in designing strategic actions to promote healthier food consumption by emphasizing the benefits of healthier food choices and making them more appealing to consumers. The methodology employed in this study can also be applied to further studies aimed to assess emotional responses to food stimuli across different cultures.

Application of Umami Tastants for Sodium Reduction in Food: An Evidence Analysis Center Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Sodium chloride intake far exceeds the guidelines from health and regulatory agencies. Acknowledging the positive relationship between sodium intake and blood pressure, interest in substances that assist in sodium reduction, while contributing a savory taste such as umami, are highly investigated.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this scoping review was to identify and characterize studies investigating umami tastants on sodium reduction in food, with the goal of informing future research.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted in Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid Embase, Ovid Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, EBSCO PsycInfo, PROSPERO, National Institutes of Health RePORTER, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform and completed in March 2022 to identify peer-reviewed publications among adults (18 years and older) with interventions focusing on umami tastants to reduce sodium content.

RESULTS

The literature search identified 52 studies, among which monosodium glutamate was the most studied umami tastant or food. Furthermore, most of the research on umami was represented through cross-sectional sensory studies to determine acceptability of foods with part of the original sodium chloride replaced with umami tastants. Only 1 study investigated the use of an umami tastant on overall daily sodium intake.

CONCLUSIONS

To assist individuals in adhering to sodium reduction intake goals set forth by regulatory agencies and their guiding policies, these findings indicated that additional research on umami tastants, including systematic reviews and prospective trials, is warranted. In these prospective studies, both intermediate outcomes (ie, dietary pattern changes, daily dietary intake of sodium, and blood pressure) and hard outcomes (ie, incidence of hypertension or stroke, as well as cardiovascular composite outcomes) should be considered.

Influence of fat reduction and flavor addition on the temporal sensory profile in potato chips using a multiple-intake approach

BACKGROUND

Reducing the fat content of potato chips can negatively affect the overall perception of taste and texture. However, incorporating flavor can help mitigate negative effects. To measure and understand these changes, a technique describing the consumption experience must be used. The impact of low fat content and the presence of ham flavor in the formulation of potato chips was studied in relation to the dynamics of sensations perceived during consumption and, additionally, related to the hedonic aspects of these products.

RESULTS

Three different varieties of commercially available potato chips, classical salted potato chips (PC-C), light (low fat content) potato chips (PC-L), and ham-flavored potato chips (PC-H), were analyzed by multiple-intake temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) sessions, showing the differences among PC-C, PC-L, and PC-H. Moreover, acceptability and purchase intention were also considered. The results showed that the lower fat content in the potato chips had a great impact on temporal dominance of texture attributes, whereas the presence of ham flavor in the formulation greatly modified the temporal dominance of flavor sensations during consumption with no effect on acceptability.

CONCLUSION

Multiple intake TDS is a suitable method for revealing how modifications of formulation and composition of potato chips to achieve healthier or different versions affects consumers dynamic sensory perception and how it is related to preferences. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Sodium Replacement with KCl and MSG: Attitudes, Perception and Acceptance in Reduced Salt Soups

Sodium intake is linked to multiple negative health outcomes, particularly hypertension, the leading cause of premature death globally. Sodium intake levels in human populations are high, due in part to our desire for palatable salty-tasting foods. Two leading salt replacement strategies are the use of potassium chloride (KCl) and monosodium glutamate (MSG), the latter of which still contains some sodium, but both of which can replace some salty taste in foods while reducing net sodium levels. In this report, we employed a trained descriptive sensory panel to optimize saltiness in sodium-reduced aqueous samples using various concentrations of KCl and MSG. Following this, we assessed consumer attitudes to sodium-reduction strategies in a model food, canned soup, known to typically be high in sodium. Finally, in a large consumer test, we verified that these optimized levels of KCl and MSG did not lead to a drop in liking for the reduced-sodium soups with saltiness subsidized in this manner. Our results showed that sodium can be readily reduced in soups by 18% while actually scoring higher in liking, and in some cases being perceived as even more salty tasting, but that consumers are more open to sodium reduction in this manner when sodium replacements are not specifically highlighted, and when percentage sodium reduction is stated over absolute levels.

A qualitative look at perception and experience of sodium reduction strategies in the food industry through focus groups and individual interviews

The high incidence of sodium overconsumption in the general population has led sodium reduction in commercial food products to become a topic of importance in the food industry. In order to bridge the gap between sodium reduction understanding in the food industry and academia, focus groups and individual interviews of food industry professionals were conducted. Sodium reduction and influence from external entities such as federal regulations and consumer insight were prominent in the nutritional concerns of food industry professionals. A large variety of sodium reduction strategies were introduced with discussion on the many factors that contribute to their potential for success. Flavor modification methods were most prevalent in the discussion, with particular focus on potassium chloride and incorporating umami taste. Factors that frequently positively contributed to a strategy's success include maintaining functionality and/or important sensory attributes, inexpensive to implement, and being perceived as clean label. Conversely, factors that negatively affect success include adversely impacting flavor, being considered not clean label, and high costs of implementation. Foods important for future sodium reduction varied widely, although those were largely products with high sodium density. Future efforts toward reducing sodium overconsumption and sodium content in the food supply fell into three categories: consumer-focused, industry-focused, and research-focused. Of particular importance for future efforts included greater regulatory pressure and more consumer nutritional education. Findings suggest that future efforts to reduce the incidence of sodium overconsumption should be carried out through multiple avenues rather than focusing on the agency of consumers, the food industry, or research alone.

Consumer perception of salt-reduced bread with the addition of brown seaweed evaluated under blinded and informed conditions

BACKGROUND

Many consumers have a high salt intake and bread is a primary source because of its high rate of consumption. The inclusion of seaweeds has been proposed as an ingredient that could help reduce the salt content of food products. As such, the present study aimed to evaluate whether the amount of salt in bread could be reduced and the change in sensory properties be mitigated by the inclusion of brown seaweed. There were two different sensory trials conducted. In the first trial, participants (n = 102) evaluated bread made with brown seaweed (4% substitution for flour) with reduced amounts of salt (10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%). The second trial asked participants (n = 98) to evaluate the control bread and the 20% salt-reduced bread in blinded and informed conditions. In both sensory trials, the breads samples were assessed using hedonic scales, just-about-right scales, and check-all-that-apply.

RESULTS

The results showed that the 10% and 20% salt-reduced breads were acceptable and associated with being soft, chewy and having no aftertaste. The other breads were associated with a dense, dry and strong aftertaste, along with not being salty enough for the consumers. When the breads were evaluated in informed conditions, the salt reduction label had a negative impact on the consumers' liking.

CONCLUSION

The research emphasizes that salt-reduced labels influence consumers' sensory perception. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Modelling of salt intake reduction by incorporation of umami substances into Japanese foods: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Evidence has demonstrated that excess sodium intake is associated with development of several non-communicable diseases. The main source of sodium is salt. Therefore, reducing salt intake in foods is an important global public health effort to achieve sodium reduction and improve health. This study aimed to model salt intake reduction with 'umami' substances among Japanese adults. The umami substances considered in this study include glutamate or monosodium glutamates (MSG), calcium diglutamate (CDG), inosinate, and guanylate.

METHODS

A total of 21,805 participants aged 57.8 years on average from the National Health and Nutrition Survey was used in the analysis. First, we employed a multivariable linear regression approach with overall salt intake (g/day) as a dependent variable, adjusting for food items and other covariates to estimate the contribution of salt intake from each food item that was selected through an extensive literature review. Assuming the participants already consume low-sodium products, we considered three scenarios in which salt intake could be reduced with the additional umami substances up to 30%, 60% and 100%. We estimated the total amount of population-level salt reduction for each scenario by age and gender. Under the 100% scenario, the Japan's achievement rates against the national and global salt intake reduction goals were also calculated.

RESULTS

Without compromising the taste, the 100% or universal incorporation of umami substances into food items reduced the salt intake of Japanese adults by 12.8-22.3% at the population-level average, which is equivalent to 1.27-2.22 g of salt reduction. The universal incorporation of umami substances into food items changed daily mean salt intake of the total population from 9.95 g to 7.73 g: 10.83 g to 8.40 g for men and 9.21 g to 7.17 g for women, respectively. This study suggested that approximately 60% of Japanese adults could achieve the national dietary goal of 8 g/day, while only 7.6% would meet the global recommendation of 5.0 g/day.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides essential information on the potential salt reduction with umami substances. The universal incorporation of umami substances into food items would enable the Japanese to achieve the national dietary goal. However, the reduced salt intake level still falls short of the global dietary recommendation.

Reducing salt intake with umami: A secondary analysis of data in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey

Reducing sodium content in foods is an important public health measure to reduce salt intake and decrease the incidence of noncommunicable diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease. This study quantified the amount of salt intake that could potentially be reduced by using umami substances, including glutamate, inosinate, and guanylate, without compromising taste, for adults in the United Kingdom (UK). We used data comprised of 1834 adults aged 20 years and over from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS RP) 2016/2017-2018/2019. Four hypothetical scenarios in which the market share of low-sodium foods accounts for 0%, 30%, 60%, or 90% of consumed products were considered in the analyses. Per capita daily salt intake corresponding to the NDNS RP food groups was calculated for each scenario, and the salt intake was aggregated by gender and age groups. Replacing salt with umami substances could help UK adults reduce daily salt intake by 9.09%-18.59% (9.21%-18.43% for women; 8.83%-19.43% for men), which is equivalent to 0.45-0.92 g/day of salt reduction (0.41-0.82 g/day for women; 0.50-1.10 g/day for men). The use of umami substances may serve as one method for the UK government to encourage salt intake reduction, particularly in the context of food product reformulation, as 80% of salt consumed in the country comes from processed foods. Empirical studies with sensory evaluation should be conducted to confirm consumer tolerance. The food industry should also be engaged in conversations regarding the addition of umami to food products in the United Kingdom.

Salty and Savoury Snacks Compliance with 2016 and 2019 Sodium Content Targets-Durban Market, South Africa

South Africans consume a significantly high amount of sodium from salty snacks. The study aimed to evaluate savoury snacks (ready-to-eat savoury snacks, flavoured potato crisps and flavoured ready-to-eat, savoury snacks and potato crisps-salt and vinegar only) for compliance with the June 2016 and 2019 target date for sodium reduction as set out by the Department of Health in Regulation 214. It also looked at low-sodium claims made by the evaluated products. The study's research problem is located at the confluence of three critical trends: increasing consumption of sodium-containing salty snacks, increasing sodium-related disease burden and deaths and attempts to regulate sodium intake through regulation as a response. A total sample of 90 products belonging to the above categories was considered. Sodium content information was collected from the selected product packages. The study also applied the Association of Official Analytical Chemists' (AOAC) official method 984.27 in laboratory tests to verify low-sodium claims on the sampled products. The study showed that out of the 90 selected snacks, 26% of the snacks did not meet their 2019 targets, while 4% did not meet their 2016 targets. Fisher's exact tests showed that no snack category had a better inclination toward meeting 2019 tests than others. The laboratory tests showed that 4.4% of the products made a compliant low-sodium content claim (sodium levels below 120 mg Na/100 g), while one made a non-compliant sodium content claim. Among other things, the study recommended increased product compliance monitoring and evaluation, using standardised, rigorous sodium testing and measuring systems, using more consumer-friendly labels and consumer education on sodium labelling.

Effect of Monosodium Glutamate on Salt and Sugar Content Reduction in Cooked Foods for the Sensory Characteristics and Consumer Acceptability

Three different types of typical Korean foods were studied to investigate the effect of monosodium glutamate (MSG) on the sensory characteristics and hedonic perception of sodium- or sugar-reduced samples. The first consumer test (n = 300) was conducted to evaluate the overall liking (OL) of the samples containing four different levels of salt and sugar contents without added MSG, while the second consumer test (n = 300) was designed to examine the effects of MSG on the samples containing reduced salt and sugar contents with the lowest observed OL in the first consumer test. The results showed that the intensity of the umami taste and saltiness of the samples increased, whereas sourness and bitterness were suppressed with added MSG. The samples with the lowest salt contents were observed to be acceptable to consumers after MSG addition, indicating a 23% reduction in sodium intake. Bitterness was partially masked, while sweetness, umami taste, and saltiness were the main factors affecting the OL after MSG addition. However, no consistent results of added MSG on the sensory attributes of samples with reduced sugar contents were observed, possibly indicating that the effect of umami taste on sweetness depends on the MSG concentration used or the type of food studied. This study could be beneficial to researchers who want to know the optimal level of MSG required to reduce the sodium or sugar contents in cooked food.

Effect of Labelling and Information on Consumer Perception of Foods Presented as 3D Printed

Labelling and information have been shown to increase acceptance of novel food technologies. The novel technology of 3 Dimensional Printing (3DP) of foods is not well known among consumers. The study aim was to investigate the effect of the 3DP label and benefits information on consumer acceptance and perception of plausible 3DP foods. Commercially available foods, such as milk chocolate swirls, gummy candy carrots, and baked potato Smiles®, represented 3DP benefits, and each was evaluated in a sensory panel. Participants rated acceptance and perceived quality after each of three product presentations; first labeled "conventional", then labeled "3D printed", and again labeled 3D printed after information presentation. Participants indicated product preference after the third presentation. Food Technology Neophobia (FTN), attitude, and previous 3DP knowledge were queried. Quality rating of chocolate swirls and gummy candy carrots increased when labeled as 3DP versus conventional; information did not further increase quality ratings. Participants preferred 3DP chocolate swirls and gummy candy carrots to conventional in the final evaluation. Label and information did not change flavor, texture, or overall acceptance ratings for any product. Attitude towards 3DP of foods increased with lower FTN. Future studies could tailor information to consumer interests and knowledge gaps that highlight relevant benefits of 3DP.

Compendium of sodium reduction strategies in foods: A scoping review

In response to health concerns generated by increased sodium intake, many new approaches have been studied to reduce the sodium content in processed food. It has been suggested that reducing sodium in the food supply may be the most appropriate solution. The aim of this scoping review was to establish what sodium reduction strategies are effective in maintaining acceptable sensory qualities for various food industry applications. Studies that evaluate and report on the effectiveness of a sodium reduction strategy relevant to food and included outcomes detailing how the strategies were received by human subjects using sensory data are included, as well as book chapters, literature reviews, and patents focusing on sodium reduction strategies. Only those published in English and since 1970 were included. Literature was obtained through Scopus, PubMed, EBSCOhost, and ScienceDirect databases, whereas patents were obtained through US Patent Trademark Office, Google Patents, and PATENTSCOPE databases. Two-hundred and seventy-seven primary studies, 27 literature reviews, 10 book chapters, and 143 patents were selected for inclusion. Data extracted included details such as analytical methods, broad and specific treatment categories, significant outcomes, and limitations among other material. Sodium reduction methods were categorized as either salt removal, salt replacement, flavor modification, functional modification, or physical modification. Although salt removal and salt replacement were the majority of included studies, future research would benefit from combining methods from other categories while investigating the impact on sensory characteristics, technological aspects, and consumer perception of the strategy.

Determination of hedonic thresholds by varying three stimuli

The Hedonic Threshold Methodology (HTM), through the determination of compromised acceptance threshold (CAT) and hedonic rejection threshold (HRT), has several applications by the food industry. In order to further increase the field of application of HTM, the objective was to use a mixture design in the Hedonic Threshold Methodology, to enable the determination of hedonic thresholds (CAT and HRT) by varying the intensity of three stimuli simultaneously. It was investigated how much it is possible to replace the NaCl content (1.8% flour weight basis) with two other ingredients (KCL/yeast extract or KCL/enzyme preparation), without compromising the acceptance (CAT) and without resulting in sensory rejection (HRT) of crackers. Reduction in the acceptance started to occur by reducing the NaCl content by around 64% (from 1.81% to 0.651%), with the addition of 1.149% KCl. Two combinations of KCl and yeast extract (1.783% and 0.017%, or 0.693% and 1.107%, respectively) allowed producing a cracker with no NaCl without sensory rejection. The reduction in acceptance also started to occur by reducing the NaCl content by around 40% (from 1.81% to 1.086%), with adding of 0.358% KCl and 0.356% enzyme preparation. A sensory rejection begins to occur by reducing the NaCl content by around 99% (1.81-0.012%), with the addition of 1.215% KCl and 0.573% enzyme preparation (transglutaminase). The use of the mixture design in HTM allowed the unprecedented determination of hedonic thresholds varying three stimuli. This expands the possibilities for applications of sensory thresholds.

How much can sodium chloride be substituted for potassium chloride without affecting the sensory acceptance of cracker-type biscuits?

Excessive sodium consumption is a worldwide public health concern. The substitution of sodium chloride (NaCl) for potassium chloride (KCl) has been adopted to reduce the sodium concentration in processed foods. The challenge is to make this substitution without affecting the sensory acceptance of foods. In this context, the objective was to determine from which concentrations the replacement of NaCl by KCl results in reduced acceptance (compromised acceptance threshold - CAT) and begins the sensory rejection (hedonic rejection threshold - HRT) of cracker-type biscuits. Using the hedonic thresholds methodology (HTM) by varying a stimulus, CAT and HRT were determined for the concentration of NaCl in crackers and, by varying two stimuli, CAT and HRT, for replacing NaCl with KCl in crackers were determined. Without the addition of KCl, the reduction in acceptance started to occur by reducing the NaCl content by around 60% (from 1.81% to 0.73%); and sensory rejection began to appear by reducing the NaCl content by approximately 93% (1.81% to 0.13%). Reduction in the acceptance started to occur by lowering the NaCl content by around 78% (from 1.81% to 0.397%), with the addition of 0.896% KCl. In addition, by adding KCl, it was possible to reduce 100% NaCl without sensory rejection of the crackers. With these results, cracker industries can reduce the sodium content of their products, contributing to the reduction of population salt intake.

Investigating Consumers' Preference for Acrylamide-Free Cassava Snacks

As potato chips are often found to contain a carcinogen, called acrylamide, less-risky chips can alternatively be made from cassava. This study aims at examining consumers’ preference and the factors determining their marginal willingness to pay for acrylamide-free cassava chips. The study is undertaken based on questionnaire surveys with 1077 respondents from all six regions of Thailand. Various socio-economic characteristics, and behavior and perception on relevant issues are included in the OLS estimations of marginal willingness, acting as independent variables. The study finds that people show their preference for acrylamide-free cassava chips, and are willing to pay a premium price of THB 5.86, on average. The results also statistically present, among others, the positive explanatory power of persons’ perception about food safety, especially the dangers of acrylamide, and the size of family on the preference of cassava chips. Adult consumers and those from the northeastern region surprisingly reveal an unfavorable willingness to pay more for non-acrylamide cassava chips. Moreover, the availability of sale promotion can encourage consumers to pay more for healthier cassava chips. The findings should allow producers to understand consumers’ buying behavior and their preference for cassava chips as a substitute product; in turn, this should help to commercialize these products in the wider market.

Mechanisms of umami taste perception: From molecular level to brain imaging

Due to unique characteristics, umami substances have gained much attention in the food industry during the past decade as potential replacers to sodium or fat to increase food palatability. Umami is not only known to increase appetite, but also to increase satiety, and hence could be used to control food intake. Therefore, it is important to understand the mechanism(s) involved in umami taste perception. This review discusses current knowledge of the mechanism(s) of umami perception from receptor level to human brain imaging. New findings regarding the molecular mechanisms for detecting umami tastes and their pathway(s), and the peripheral and central coding to umami taste are reviewed. The representation of umami in the human brain and the individual variation in detecting umami taste and associations with genotype are discussed. The presence of umami taste receptors in the gastrointestinal tract, and the interactions between the brain and gut are highlighted. The review concludes that more research is required into umami taste perception to include not only oral umami taste perception, but also the wider "whole body" signaling mechanisms, to explore the interaction between the brain and gut in response to umami perception and ingestion.

Can "Functional Sweetener" Context Increase Liking for Cookies Formulated with Alternative Sweeteners?

Various strategies for replacing sugar with naturally derived sweeteners are being developed and tested. In this study, the effect of the “functional sweetener” context, which is created by providing health-promoting information, on liking for the sweeteners was investigated using a cookie model system. Cookie samples were prepared by replacing the sugar of 100% sucrose cookies (control) with phyllodulcin, rebaudioside A, xylobiose and sucralose either entirely or partly. The sensory profile of the samples was obtained using descriptive evaluations. Hedonic responses to cookie samples were collected from 96 consumers under blind and informed conditions. Replacement of 100% sucrose with rebaudioside A or phyllodulcin significantly increased bitterness but replacement of 50% sugar elicited sensory characteristics similar to those of the control. Although the “functional sweetener” context did not influence overall liking, liking for the samples was more clearly distinguished when information was provided. Consumers were segmented into three clusters according to their shift in liking in the informed condition: when information was presented, some consumers decreased their liking for sucralose cookies, while other consumers increased or decreased their liking for sucrose cookies. Results suggest that the influence of information varies among individual consumers and that cognitive stimulation, such as health-promoting information, affects liking.