Validation and application of a German version of the Dietarian Identity Questionnaire: Revealing differences between omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans

Psychological differences and similarities between vegans, prospective vegans, and vegetarians. Motivation, knowledge, vegan literacy - and cheese

Introduction

Although vegan and vegetarian diets and lifestyles differ significantly from each other, among other things, notably in their respective consequences regarding animal welfare and their ecological impact, vegans and vegetarians are often grouped together and usually compared to omnivores in psychological research. Considering that vegans and vegetarians often share similar motives for their lifestyle choices, namely animal and environmental issues, the question arises why similar motives lead to different conclusions and correspondingly different behaviors, most notably, of course, that vegetarians consume animal-derived foods such as cheese or milk while vegans do not consume animal-derived products (e.g., food, cosmetic products). This is why this study explored the psychological differences between vegans, vegetarians, and prospective vegans - the latter group being located in an intermediate, transitionary position. Focusing on the motivational, affective and cognitive components of dietary transition and participants' adherence to eating patterns, reasons for said patterns, possible hinderances to becoming vegan, the role of participants' social environments, and the impact of various misconceptions regarding the feasibility of a vegan diet in everyday life were all explored.

Methods

An observational study was conducted via online questionnaire (1420 participants).

Results

Significant differences were found between vegans, prospective vegans, and vegetarians, especially concerning their knowledge of issues pertaining to their respective lifestyles.

Discussion

The critical role of knowledge is invoked as an explanation as to why vegans and vegetarians display different behaviors although they share a similar motivation. Thus, in this study the concept of vegan literacy is introduced. Additionally, the distinctive role of cheese is explored, discussing possible indications of its potentially addictive nature and, consequently, the importance of cheese as a hindering factor for pursuing a vegan diet.

Similarities and differences between vegetarians and vegans in motives for meat-free and plant-based diets

Plant-based diets are quickly gaining popularity for their benefits to animal welfare, the environment, and public health. Compared to meat-eaters, meat-abstainers such as vegetarians and vegans are especially motivated by animal rights and the environment. However, little is known about the motivational and psychological factors that distinguish vegetarians from vegans, and what prevents vegetarians to shift towards a fully plant-based diet. In a sample of vegans (n = 335) and vegetarians (n = 182), we investigated a) motives for reducing or quitting meat consumption and b) motives for reducing or quitting animal product (dairy and egg products) consumption, as well as moral psychological and social-contextual factors that may explain potential differences. Results demonstrate that vegetarians and vegans tend to be similar in their motives to abstain from meat consumption and are most strongly motivated by animal rights. However, vegetarians are less motivated by health, environmental, and especially animal rights for dairy/egg reduction compared to meat reduction and compared to vegans. Lower moral concern for animals, stronger beliefs in human supremacy over animals, and heightened veganism threat among vegetarians (vs. vegans) partly explained why vegetarians were less strongly motivated by animal rights for dairy/egg reduction. Human supremacy beliefs also explained differences between vegetarians and vegans in health and environmental motives for dairy/egg reduction. Furthermore, vegetarians reported significantly less social support for plant-based diets and perceived more practical barriers to plant-based diets than vegans. These findings reveal meaningful differences in the motivational and psychological profiles of vegetarians and vegans and highlight the value of distinguishing between motives for meat-free diets and motives for plant-based diets.

Is being anti-vegan a distinct dietarian identity? An investigation with omnivores, vegans, and self-identified "anti-vegans"

Adding to research on the form and content of anti-vegan sentiment, recent scholarship has identified a group of individuals who self-subscribe as "anti-vegan". Here, we sought to determine whether anti-veganism might reflect a distinct dietarian identity with its own unique ideological profile. Two-hundred and fourteen vegans, 732 omnivores, and 222 self-identified "anti-vegans" were assessed using a survey methodology that included the Dietarian Identity Questionnaire and ideological markers related to dark humour, social dominance orientation (SDO), speciesism, male-role norms, moral relativism, and attitudes toward science. Our analysis revealed a dietarian identity unique to anti-vegans. The dietary patterns of anti-vegans were more central to their identity than for omnivores, though marginally lower than vegans. Like vegans, anti-vegans scored highly on dietarian measures of private regard and personal dietary motivations, and lower than omnivores on public regard. The diets of anti-vegans were more morally motivated than omnivores. However, anti-vegans scored higher than both omnivores and vegans on a number of ideological measures including dark humour, SDO, speciesism, male-role norms, moral relativism, and distrust of science. Somewhat surprising, anti-vegans held greater trust than omnivores in the science of plant-based nutrition. We discuss the unique dietarian identities of anti-vegans, considering both intra-group differences of omnivores and anti-vegans (e.g., in right-wing ideology), and inter-group similarities of vegans and anti-vegans (e.g., in diet centrality).

Meta-analysis of personality trait differences between omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans

Vegetarian and vegan diets have been increasing in the Western world. Recent research has focused on personality trait differences between dietary groups, in part because personality traits are broad characteristics that can integrate findings about different factors that motivate vegetarian or vegan diets. Previous research on personality predictors of vegetarian and vegan (veg*n) diet, however, has yielded inconsistent results. The goal of this study was to integrate the existing results of Big Five personality differences between veg*ns and omnivores as well as between vegetarians and vegans. To this end, we meta-analyzed data from 15 studies and N = 69,576 individuals from several countries. Results indicated that veg*ns were significantly higher in Openness (d = 0.40) and Agreeableness (d = 0.17) than omnivores, while vegans were significantly higher in Openness (d = 0.14) than vegetarians. This work isolates Openness and Agreeableness as important trait predictors of plant-based diets and sets the stage for future work on the factors that motivate vegetarian or vegan diet. Personality traits can provide an integrative framework for conceptualizing dietary preferences, be used to make predictions about the sources, course and correlates of dietary choices, and potentially be useful for advocates and policymakers seeking to tailor meat-reduction interventions.

Personality, dietary identity, mental and sleep health in vegans and vegetarians: A preliminary cross-sectional study

Background and Aims

Plant-based diets have gained popularity over the past decade. However, research regarding mental and sleep health benefits of following plant-based diets are conflicting. As there are associations between mental/sleep health and various personality traits, and personality may differ between individuals who follow different diets, in this preliminary study, we examined the associations between mental and sleep health and (i) personality and (ii) dietary identity in individuals who follow vegan and vegetarian diets.

Methods

Cross-sectional data on sociodemographic, personality traits, dietarian identity, overall mental health, depression, anxiety, stress, and sleep quality were collected from 57 vegan/vegetarian participants between the ages of 18-40.

Results

After controlling for various sociodemographic and lifestyle factors, linear regression models revealed that (i) higher dietarian private regard was a significant predictor of better overall mental health, (ii) lower levels of extraversion and higher levels of empathy predicted depression, (iii) higher levels of neuroticism and empathy predicted anxiety, (iv) higher levels of neuroticism, dietarian centrality, and neuroticism × centrality predicted stress, (v) higher levels of conscientiousness, lower levels of dietarian centrality, but higher levels of personal motivation and dietary strictness, as well as conscientiousness × centrality, conscientiousness × personal motivation, and conscientiousness × strictness predicted better sleep quality.

Conclusions

These preliminary findings suggest that not only personality traits, but also dietary identity was indeed related to mental and sleep health in individuals who follow plant-based diets.

The motivations and practices of vegetarian and vegan Saudis

In the Middle East, particularly in Saudi Arabia, the offering of a meat dish to guests is a deeply embedded cultural tradition, and a meat-based diet is the standard in Saudi Arabia. Thus, the rise of veganism and vegetarianism within Saudi Arabia is surprising and worthy of attention, as is understanding the perceptions and motivations behind this phenomenon, particularly as they relate to food and sustainability. This research was designed to investigate this emerging phenomenon and to identify key differences in dietarian identity between Saudi vegetarians and vegans using Rosenfeld and Burrow's Dietarian Identity Questionnaire. Among other results, the vegan group scored significantly higher on the prosocial motivation construct, suggesting the desire to help society as a whole is a stronger motivating factor for vegans. As well, the vegan cohort scored higher in the personal motivation category. From an environmental and public health perspective, understanding the key factors motivating individuals to adopt a vegetarian or vegan diet in a meat-based culture like Saudi Arabia can be used to encourage others to pursue more healthy and sustainable food behaviors.

Forty-five years of research on vegetarianism and veganism: A systematic and comprehensive literature review of quantitative studies

Meat production and consumption are sources of animal cruelty, responsible for several environmental problems and human health diseases, and contribute to social inequality. Vegetarianism and veganism (VEG) are two alternatives that align with calls for a transition to more ethical, sustainable, and healthier lifestyles. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic literature review of 307 quantitative studies on VEG (from 1978 to 2023), collected from the Web of Science in the categories of psychology, behavioral science, social science, and consumer behavior. For a holistic view of the literature and to capture its multiple angles, we articulated our objectives by responding to the variables of "WHEN," "WHERE," "WHO," "WHAT," "WHY," "WHICH," and "HOW" (6W1H) regarding the VEG research. Our review highlighted that quantitative research on VEG has experienced exponential growth with an unbalanced geographical focus, accompanied by an increasing richness but also great complexity in the understating of the VEG phenomenon. The systematic literature review found different approaches from which the authors studied VEG while identifying methodological limitations. Additionally, our research provided a systematic view of factors studied on VEG and the variables associated with VEG-related behavior change. Accordingly, this study contributes to the literature in the field of VEG by mapping the most recent trends and gaps in research, clarifying existing findings, and suggesting directions for future research.

Cultured Meat on the Social Network Twitter: Clean, Future and Sustainable Meats

The rapid development of technologies for cultured meat production has led to new challenges for producers regarding appropriate communication with future customers in order to deliver products to a viable market. Communication analysis of social media enables the identification of the key characteristics of the monitored topic, as well as the main areas of communication by individual users based on active digital footprints. This study aimed to identify the key characteristics of cultured meat based on communication analysis of the social network Twitter. Communication analysis was performed based on 36,356 Tweets posted by 4128 individual users. This analysis identified the following main communicated characteristics: clean meat, future meat, and sustainable meat. Latent Dittrich allocation identified five communication topics: (1) clean and sustainable products, (2) comparisons with plant-based protein and the impact on agribusiness, (3) positive environmental aspects, (4) cultured meat as an alternative protein, and (5) the regulation of cultured meat.

You Are What You Eat… But Do You Eat What You Are? The Role of Identity in Eating Behaviors—A Scoping Review

Background: Identity is a major construct in the fields of psychology and anthropology that can relate to both the maintenance of eating behaviors and cultural sensitivity. However, there has not been any systematic effort to understand the role of identity in eating behaviors and the maintenance of eating behaviors, or to address multiple aspects of identity within an individual across scientific disciplines. This scoping review aims to understand and describe existing research relating identity to eating behaviors and to detail the measurement of identity. Methods: We conducted a systematic search of Ovid, PsychINFO, Embase, and Web of Science for articles on identity and eating behaviors published between January 1946 and March 2022. We utilized the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist, and search methods were developed with the assistance of a research librarian. We rated articles from 1 to 5 based on the depth, complexity, and multi-dimensionality of the identity measurement conducted. Scoring criteria included a review of the number of items directly querying or evaluating identity and the extent of measurement of identity domains. Results: In total, 100 articles were included, examining 10 different identities, 8 identity constructs, 11 eating behaviors, and construct contributions from 26 theories. The mean score of all articles was 2.9 on the scale from 1 to 5. A total of 10 studies scored a “1”; 30 scored a “2”, indicating the use of 1–2 basic questions about identity; 31 received a “3” for use of a common but non-complex identity instrument; 19 received a “4”, meaning they contained strong evaluation and included multiple types of identity but were lacking in terms of depth of measure and/or the comparison of identity effects to constructs; and 10 scored a “5” for their strong, in-depth measure of identity and inclusion of multiple types. Identity was found to be significantly related to eating behaviors in all but one study. Conclusion: Identity measurements seldom accounted for complexities such as multiple identities and identity shifting over time. Nonetheless, our findings indicate that multiple aspects of identity reciprocally reinforce behavior and that change maintenance is associated with identity salience and centrality. Identity is underutilized and heterogeneously applied in eating behavior research. The inclusion of identity assessments may lead to better outcomes being obtained within differing cultural, normative, and environmental scenarios.

Vegetarian and omnivorous diets: A cross-sectional study of motivation, eating disorders, and body shape perception

Vegetarianism, which is increasingly widespread in Western societies, is underpinned by various motivations (ethical, environmental, health concerns …) and the question of its association with eating disorders continues to divide the literature. This cross-sectional study aimed to explore and compare eating motives/attitudes and bodily preoccupations of vegetarian and omnivorous participants from the general population. Forty-nine vegetarians and 52 omnivores, aged between 18 and 70 years, completed a battery of questionnaires including sociodemographic characteristics, Body Mass Indexes (BMI - current, ideal, lifetime lowest, and lifetime highest), the Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ), the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (EAT-26), and the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ). Compared to omnivores, vegetarians reported lower current (p = .017), ideal (p = .009), and lifetime lowest (p = .005) BMIs, more motivations related to health (p = .001) and natural content (p < .0001), but less weight control motivations (p = .015). While no differences were observed in EAT-26 scores, vegetarians had lower BSQ total scores (p = .043), and lower scores on the Body Dissatisfaction related to Lower body parts (p = .025) and Unsuited Cognitions and Behaviors (p = .015) subscales compared to omnivores. Separate gender comparisons revealed that these differences existed only among women. Hierarchical regressions revealed that the natural content motivation was the strongest positive statistical predictor of the vegetarian group (Expβ = 1.18, p = .002), while the weight control motivation was a negative statistical predictor (Expβ = .710, p = .023). Results demonstrated that vegetarians expressed motivation for a healthy and natural diet, and were less concerned about controlling their weight than the omnivores. Vegetarian women had lower BMIs but expressed fewer psychological concerns associated with eating disorders than omnivorous women. Vegetarian diets appeared to be associated with health benefits and less body and weight concerns, particularly among women in the general population.