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Krishnan A, Kogan C, Peters RT, Thomas EL, Critzer F. Microbial and physicochemical assessment of irrigation water treatment methods. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 131:1555-1562. [PMID: 33594789 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The presence of foodborne pathogens in preharvest agricultural water has been identified as a potential contamination source in outbreak investigations, driving markets and auditing bodies to begin requiring water treatment for high-risk produce. Therefore, it is essential that we identify water treatment methods which are effective as well as practical in their application on farm. METHODS AND RESULTS In this work, we evaluated two sanitizers which are most prominent in preharvest agricultural water treatment (calcium hypochlorite (free chlorine: 3-5 ppm) and peracetic acid (PAA: 5 ppm)), an EPA registered antimicrobial device (ultraviolet light (UV)), in addition to a combination approach (chlorine + UV, PAA + UV). Treatments were evaluated for their ability to inactivate total coliforms and generic Escherichia coli and consistency in treatment efficacy over 1 h of operation. Physicochemical variables were measured along with microbial populations at 0, 5, 15, 30, 45 and 60 min of operation. Escherichia coli and coliform counts showed a significant (P < 0·05) reduction after treatment, with combination and singular treatments equally effective at inactivating E. coli and coliforms. A significant increase (P < 0·05) in oxidation-reduction potential was seen during water treatment (Chlorine; UV + Chlorine), and a significant reduction (P < 0·05) in pH was seen after PAA and PAA + UV treatments (60 min). CONCLUSION Overall, the results indicate that all treatments evaluated are equally efficacious for inactivating E. coli and coliforms present in surface agricultural water. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This information when paired with challenge studies targeting foodborne pathogens of interest can be used to support grower decisions when selecting and validating a preharvest agricultural water treatment programme.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Krishnan
- School of Food Science and Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center, Washington State University, Prosser, WA, USA
| | - C Kogan
- Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - R T Peters
- Department of Biosystems Engineering and Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center, Washington State University, Prosser, WA, USA
| | - E L Thomas
- Department of Biosystems Engineering and Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center, Washington State University, Prosser, WA, USA
| | - F Critzer
- School of Food Science and Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center, Washington State University, Prosser, WA, USA
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Banach JL, van der Fels-Klerx HJ. Microbiological Reduction Strategies of Irrigation Water for Fresh Produce. J Food Prot 2020; 83:1072-1087. [PMID: 32032424 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-19-466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Irrigation water can be a source of pathogenic contamination of fresh produce. Controlling the quality of the water used during primary production is important to ensure food safety and protect human health. Several measures to control the microbiological quality of irrigation water are available for growers, including preventative and mitigation strategies. However, clear guidance for growers on which strategies could be used to reduce microbiological contamination is needed. This study evaluates pathogenic microorganisms of concern in fresh produce and water, the microbiological criteria of water intended for agricultural purposes, and the preventative and mitigative microbial reduction strategies. This article provides suggestions for control measures that growers can take during primary production to reduce foodborne pathogenic contamination coming from irrigation water. Results show that controlling the water source, regime, and timing of irrigation may help to reduce the potential exposure of fresh produce to contamination. Moreover, mitigation strategies like electrolysis, ozone, UV, and photocatalysts hold promise either as a single treatment, with pretreatments that remove suspended material, or as combined treatments with another chemical or physical treatment(s). Based on the literature data, a decision tree was developed for growers, which describes preventative and mitigation strategies for irrigation-water disinfection based on the fecal coliform load of the irrigation water and the water turbidity. It helps guide growers when trying to evaluate possible control measures given the quality of the irrigation water available. Overall, the strategies available to control irrigation water used for fresh produce should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis because one strategy or technology does not apply to all scenarios. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Banach
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3439-854X [J.L.B.]; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7801-394X [H.J.F.K.])
| | - H J van der Fels-Klerx
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3439-854X [J.L.B.]; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7801-394X [H.J.F.K.])
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Yin H, Gu G, Nou X, Patel J. Comparative evaluation of irrigation waters on microbiological safety of spinach in field. J Appl Microbiol 2019; 127:1889-1900. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.14436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- H.‐B. Yin
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory USDA ARS Beltsville MD USA
| | - G. Gu
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory USDA ARS Beltsville MD USA
| | - X. Nou
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory USDA ARS Beltsville MD USA
| | - J. Patel
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory USDA ARS Beltsville MD USA
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Abeledo-Lameiro MJ, Ares-Mazás E, Goméz-Couso H. Use of ultrasound irradiation to inactivate Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in effluents from municipal wastewater treatment plants. ULTRASONICS SONOCHEMISTRY 2018; 48:118-126. [PMID: 30080534 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2018.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Water reuse is currently considered an innovative way to addressing water shortage that can provide significant economic, social and environmental benefits, particularly -but not exclusively- in water deficient areas. The potential transmission of infectious diseases is the most common concern in relation to water reclamation. Cryptosporidium is an important genus of protozoan enteropathogens that infect a wide range of vertebrate hosts, including humans. The infective form (oocyst) is highly resistant to the environmental conditions and disinfection treatments. Consequently, Cryptosporidium is the most common etiological agent identified in waterborne outbreaks attributed to parasitic protozoa worldwide. The present study evaluates the efficacy of ultrasound disinfection, at three power levels (60, 80 and 100 W), pulsed at 50% or in continuous mode, for inactivating the waterborne protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum in simulated and real effluents from municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWTPs). Overall interpretation of the results shows that the application of ultrasound irradiation at 80 W power in continuous mode for an exposure time of 10 min drastically reduced the viability of C. parvum. Thus, oocyst viabilities of 4.16 ± 1.93%; 1.29 ± 0.86%; 3.16 ± 0.69%; and 3.15 ± 0.87% were obtained in distilled water, simulated, real and filtered MWTP effluents, respectively (vs 98.57 ± 0.01%, initial oocyst viability), as determined using inclusion/exclusion of the fluorogenic vital dye propidium iodide, an indicator of the integrity of the oocyst wall. Independently of the mode used (pulsed/continuous) and at 80 W power, higher level of oocyst inactivation was detected in MWTP effluents than in distilled water used as a control solution, may be due to the differences in the chemical composition of the samples. Comparison of the results obtained in both modes showed that use of the continuous mode yielded significantly lower oocyst viability. However, when the Dose parameter was considered (energy per volume unit), no statistically significant differences in oocyst viability were observed in relation to the type of mode used. The results demonstrate that ultrasound technology represents a promising alternative to the disinfection methods (ultraviolet irradiation and chlorine products) currently used in water reclamation as it drastically reduces the survival of Cryptosporidium oocysts, without changing the chemical composition of the water or producing toxic by-products.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Jesús Abeledo-Lameiro
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Elvira Ares-Mazás
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Hipólito Goméz-Couso
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain; Institute of Food Research and Analysis, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain.
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Mekonnen KN, Seopela MP, Mokgalaka NS, McCrindle RI. Assessment of microbiological, physicochemical, water-soluble anions and elemental contents of water and sediments of Bon Accord Dam, South Africa. COGENT CHEMISTRY 2018; 4:1560858. [DOI: https:/doi.org/10.1080/23312009.2018.1560858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kebede Nigussie Mekonnen
- Department of Chemistry, Tshwane University of Technology, P. O. Box 56208, Arcadia 0007, South Africa
- Department of Chemistry, Mekelle University, P. O. Box 231, Mekelle, Ethiopia
| | - Mathapelo Pearl Seopela
- Department of Chemistry, Tshwane University of Technology, P. O. Box 56208, Arcadia 0007, South Africa
| | | | - Robert Ian McCrindle
- Department of Chemistry, Tshwane University of Technology, P. O. Box 56208, Arcadia 0007, South Africa
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Park J, Church J, Son Y, Kim KT, Lee WH. Recent advances in ultrasonic treatment: Challenges and field applications for controlling harmful algal blooms (HABs). ULTRASONICS SONOCHEMISTRY 2017. [PMID: 28633833 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2017.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Algal blooms are a naturally occurring phenomenon which can occur in both freshwater and saltwater. However, due to excess nutrient loading in water bodies (e.g. agricultural runoff and industrial activities), harmful algal blooms (HABs) have become an increasing issue globally, and can even cause health effects in humans due to the release of cyanotoxins. Among currently available treatment methods, sonication has received increasing attention for algal control because of its low impact on ecosystems and the environment. The effects of ultrasound on algal cells are well understood and operating parameter such as frequency, intensity, and duration of exposure has been well studied. However, most studies have been limited to laboratory data interpretation due to complicated environmental conditions in the field. Only a few field and pilot tests in small reservoirs were reported and the applicability of ultrasound for HABs prevention and control is still under question. There is a lack of information on the upscaling of ultrasonication devices for HAB control on larger water bodies, considering field influencing factors such as rainfall, light intensity/duration, temperature, water flow, nutrients loading, and turbidity. In this review article, we address the challenges and field considerations of ultrasonic applications for controlling algal blooms. An extensive literature survey, from the fundamentals of ultrasound techniques to recent ultrasound laboratory and field studies, has been thoroughly conducted and summarized to identify future technical expectations for field applications. Case studies investigating spatial distribution of frequency and pressure during sonication are highlighted with future implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jungsu Park
- Water Quality Research Center, Korea Water Resources Corporation, Daejeon 34350, South Korea
| | - Jared Church
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816-2450, USA
| | - Younggyu Son
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gumi, Gyeongbuk 39177, South Korea
| | - Keug-Tae Kim
- Department of Applied Biotechnology, University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Woo Hyoung Lee
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816-2450, USA.
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Ceuppens S, Johannessen GS, Allende A, Tondo EC, El-Tahan F, Sampers I, Jacxsens L, Uyttendaele M. Risk Factors for Salmonella, Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli and Campylobacter Occurrence in Primary Production of Leafy Greens and Strawberries. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2015; 12:9809-31. [PMID: 26295251 PMCID: PMC4555313 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph120809809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Revised: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The microbiological sanitary quality and safety of leafy greens and strawberries were assessed in the primary production in Belgium, Brazil, Egypt, Norway and Spain by enumeration of Escherichia coli and detection of Salmonella, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) and Campylobacter. Water samples were more prone to containing pathogens (54 positives out of 950 analyses) than soil (16/1186) and produce on the field (18/977 for leafy greens and 5/402 for strawberries). The prevalence of pathogens also varied markedly according to the sampling region. Flooding of fields increased the risk considerably, with odds ratio (OR) 10.9 for Salmonella and 7.0 for STEC. A significant association between elevated numbers of generic E. coli and detection of pathogens (OR of 2.3 for STEC and 2.7 for Salmonella) was established. Generic E. coli was found to be a suitable index organism for Salmonella and STEC, but to a lesser extent for Campylobacter. Guidelines on frequency of sampling and threshold values for E. coli in irrigation water may differ from region to region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siele Ceuppens
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation (LFMFP), Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
| | - Gro S Johannessen
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Ana Allende
- Research Group on Quality, Safety and Bioactivity of Plant Foods, Department of Food Science and Technology, CEBAS-CSIC, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
| | - Eduardo César Tondo
- Laboratório de Microbiologia e Controle de Alimentos, Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (ICTA/UFRGS), Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Prédio 43212, Campus do Vale, Agronomia, Cep. 91501-970 Porto Alegre/RS, Brazil.
| | - Fouad El-Tahan
- Royal International Inspection Laboratories (RIIL), Suez 43111, Egypt.
| | - Imca Sampers
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology & Biotechnology, Department of Industrial Biological Sciences, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Kortrijk 8500, Belgium.
| | - Liesbeth Jacxsens
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation (LFMFP), Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
| | - Mieke Uyttendaele
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation (LFMFP), Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
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Irrigation Water Quality for Leafy Crops: A Perspective of Risks and Potential Solutions. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2015; 12:7457-77. [PMID: 26151764 PMCID: PMC4515668 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph120707457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence of the contribution of irrigation water in the contamination of produce leading to subsequent outbreaks of foodborne illness. This is a particular risk in the production of leafy vegetables that will be eaten raw without cooking. Retailers selling leafy vegetables are increasingly targeting zero-risk production systems and the associated requirements for irrigation water quality have become more stringent in regulations and quality assurance schemes (QAS) followed by growers. Growers can identify water sources that are contaminated with potential pathogens through a monitoring regime and only use water free of pathogens, but the low prevalence of pathogens makes the use of faecal indicators, particularly E. coli, a more practical approach. Where growers have to utilise water sources of moderate quality, they can reduce the risk of contamination of the edible portion of the crop (i.e., the leaves) by treating irrigation water before use through physical or chemical disinfection systems, or avoid contact between the leaves and irrigation water through the use of drip or furrow irrigation, or the use of hydroponic growing systems. This study gives an overview of the main problems in the production of leafy vegetables associated with irrigation water, including microbial risk and difficulties in water monitoring, compliance with evolving regulations and quality standards, and summarises the current alternatives available for growers to reduce microbial risks.
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