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Alexander-Savino CV, Mirowski GW, Culton DA. Mucocutaneous Manifestations of Recreational Drug Use. Am J Clin Dermatol 2024; 25:281-297. [PMID: 38217568 DOI: 10.1007/s40257-023-00835-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
Recreational drug use is increasingly common in the dermatology patient population and is often associated with both general and specific mucocutaneous manifestations. Signs of substance use disorder may include changes to general appearance, skin, and mucosal findings associated with particular routes of drug administration (injection, insufflation, or inhalation) or findings specific to a particular drug. In this review article, we provide an overview of the mucocutaneous manifestations of illicit drug use including cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin, hallucinogens, marijuana, and common adulterants to facilitate the identification and improved care of these patients with the goal being to connect this patient population with appropriate resources for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina V Alexander-Savino
- State University of New York Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
- Department of Dermatology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 410 Market Street, Suite 400, Chapel Hill, NC, 27516, USA
| | - Ginat W Mirowski
- Department of Dermatology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Department of Oral Pathology, Medicine, Radiology, Indiana University School of Dentistry, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Donna A Culton
- Department of Dermatology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 410 Market Street, Suite 400, Chapel Hill, NC, 27516, USA.
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Rana D, Salave S, Benival D. Emerging trends in Abuse-Deterrent Formulations: Technological insights and Regulatory considerations. Curr Drug Deliv 2021; 19:846-859. [PMID: 34879799 DOI: 10.2174/1567201818666211208101035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Opioid medications are an integral part in the management of acute and chronic severe pain. However, non-medical practice of these prescription drug products is emerging as a serious public health problem. To control this opioid epidemic, USFDA is encouraging pharmaceutical companies to develop Abuse Deterrent Formulations (ADFs). Abuse Deterrent Formulations are much more difficult to manipulate and abuse when compared to their conventional formulations. This feature of ADFs is due to their ability to incumber extraction of active ingredients, to prevent administration through alternative routes and making abuse of altered product less rewarding. OBJECTIVE The main objective of this review is to abridge different ADFs and various laboratory-based in vitro manipulation and extraction studies, demonstrating that these approved ADFs have capabilities to deter abuse. METHODS The method includes collection of data from different search engines like PubMed, FDA guidance documents, ScienceDirect, Google Patents to get coverage of literature in order to get appropriate information regarding ADFs. RESULTS Various in vitro studies demonstrate that ADFs are effective in minimizing opioid drug abuse including opioid overdose. However, real impact of these ADFs on reducing the drug abuse can be concluded only after receiving the post marketing data. CONCLUSION ADFs are embracing fundamentally different paradigm in management of severe pain. We believe that development of abuse deterrent technologies would shift the architype, deterring multipill abuse and can prove as a breakthrough strategy in controlling this opioid epidemic menace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhwani Rana
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad (NIPER-A). India
| | - Sagar Salave
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad (NIPER-A). India
| | - Derajram Benival
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad (NIPER-A). India
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Reconstruction of Chronic Wounds Secondary to Injectable Drug Use with a Biodegradable Temporizing Matrix. PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY-GLOBAL OPEN 2021; 9:e3678. [PMID: 34262839 PMCID: PMC8274732 DOI: 10.1097/gox.0000000000003678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Injectable drug use in the upper extremity often leads to chronic wounds complicated by osteomyelitis. Conventional reconstructive options are often not feasible and/or are contraindicated in this patient population. We have started using a synthetic, biodegradable temporizing matrix (BTM) for the treatment of these patients. We hypothesize that BTM is a safe, low-risk, and low-morbidity alternative reconstructive option. We report outcomes after staged debridement and BTM application followed by split-thickness skin grafting for two patients with large, chronic bilateral forearm wounds with concomitant osteomyelitis confirmed by MRI and biopsy. No acute surgical complications were encountered and at a mean follow-up of 13 months, both patients had maintained stable soft-tissue coverage. Reconstruction using BTM is a novel treatment option that can simplify the reconstruction, reduce donor-site morbidity, and optimize success for patients with chronic wounds resulting from injectable drug use. Initial outcomes are promising; however, further comparative studies are needed to better evaluate long-term outcomes of this technique.
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Huyck MA, Messmer S, Mayer SM, Yingling C. Intrawound injection of heroin as a drug delivery route among a cohort of people who inject drugs. Health Sci Rep 2021; 4:e231. [PMID: 33490636 PMCID: PMC7813019 DOI: 10.1002/hsr2.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Anthony Huyck
- Department of Health Systems ScienceCollege of Nursing, University of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoIllinois
| | - Sarah Messmer
- College of Medicine and Department of Infectious DiseaseUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoIllinois
| | - Stockton McQuade Mayer
- College of Medicine and Department of PediatricsUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoIllinois
| | - Charles Yingling
- College of Nursing and Department of Health Systems ScienceUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoIllinois
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Abstract
Krokodil is the street name for a homemade mixture that has been used as a cheap substitute for heroin. The main active substance in krokodil is desomorphine, an opioid that is 10 times more potent than morphine. Krokodil use began in Russia and Ukraine but has spread throughout several countries in Europe and North America. Krokodil is produced from codeine tablets in a bootleg reaction performed under clandestine and unsanitary conditions. The toxicity of krokodil is characterized by devastating symptoms that start as black ulcers at the injection site and evolve to gangrene and limb amputation. The dangerous effects of krokodil are associated with its homemade nature and lack of purification prior to use. In this review, we discuss the chemical and pharmacological properties and the metabolism of desomorphine, the preparation of krokodil, and how its homemade nature contributes to its toxicity. The synthesis of krokodil produces several other morphinans in addition to desomorphine that warrant further study as possible analgesic alternatives to morphine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Amorim Alves
- Department of Forensic Science, College of Humanities and Sciences, Virginia Commonwealth University 1015 Floyd Avenue, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
- Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, 21040-900 Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil
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Uzuncakmak TK, Akdeniz N, Karadag AS, Ozkanli S. Multiple ulcerations and devastating scars of skin popping on thighs in a middle-aged woman. Dermatol Ther 2020; 33:e14123. [PMID: 32754959 DOI: 10.1111/dth.14123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tugba Kevser Uzuncakmak
- Department of Dermatology, Istanbul Medeniyet University, Goztepe Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Necmettin Akdeniz
- Department of Dermatology, Istanbul Medeniyet University, Goztepe Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ayse Serap Karadag
- Department of Dermatology, Istanbul Medeniyet University, Goztepe Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Seyma Ozkanli
- Department of Pathology, Istanbul Medeniyet University, Goztepe Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
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Flint RL, Gelman A, Chiricosta FM, Strausborger S, Lewin-Smith M, Cho S. Injection of oral medication into the skin confirmed by infrared spectroscopy. J Cutan Pathol 2020; 47:1067-1072. [PMID: 32713055 DOI: 10.1111/cup.13819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
"Skin popping" refers to the practice of injecting drugs, most commonly heroin, subcutaneously or into granulation tissue. Pharmaceutical tablets meant for oral consumption are modified into solutions for injection. Excipients-inactive substances that serve as vehicles for medication-are often not filtered out before injection and result in abscess formation, granulomatous inflammation, and scarring. Common excipients used in the production of pharmaceutical tablets include starch, microcrystalline cellulose, magnesium stearate, silica, and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). Identification of these exogenous materials is valuable in confirming the diagnosis of skin popping, especially when patients may not be forthcoming about their drug use. We present a case of subcutaneous oral medication injection in which PVP and cellulose were identified by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Considering the variable cutaneous manifestations of injection drug abuse, recognition of histopathologic and chemical characteristics of exogenous material from oral medications is helpful for diagnosis and intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ari Gelman
- Department of Dermatology, Brian Allgood Army Medical Center, South Korea
| | | | | | | | - Sunghun Cho
- Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Wylie SC, Cullum C, Brarens R. Considerations in the Diagnosis and Management of Lower-Extremity Infections in Injection Heroin Users: A Case Series. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 2019; 109:437-444. [PMID: 31755766 DOI: 10.7547/17-159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND On a national level, heroin-related hospital admissions have reached an all-time high. With the foot being the fourth most common injection site, heroin-related lower-extremity infections have become more prevalent owing to many factors, including drug preparation, injection practices, and unknown additives. METHODS We present a 16-month case series in which eight patients with lower-extremity infections secondary to heroin abuse presented to The Jewish Hospital in Cincinnati, Ohio. RESULTS Three cases of osteomyelitis were seen. All of the infections were cultured and yielded a wide array of microbes, including Staphyloccoccus, Streptococcus, Bacillus, Serratia, Prevotella, and Eikenella. All of the patients were treated with intravenous antibiotic agents, with nearly all receiving combination therapy. Seven of the eight patients underwent surgery during their hospital stay, with two undergoing amputation. Only half of the patients followed up after discharge. CONCLUSIONS This case series brings to light many considerations in the diagnosis and management of the heroin user, including multivariable attenuation of immunity, existing predisposition to infection backed by unsterile drug preparation and injection practices, innocuous presentation of deep infections, microbial spectrum, and recommendations on antimicrobial intervention, noncompliance, and poor follow-up. By having greater knowledge in unique considerations of diagnosis and treatment, more efficient care can be provided to this unique patient population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadie C. Wylie
- Department of Podiatric Medicine and Surgery, The Jewish Hospital–Mercy Health, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Christopher Cullum
- Department of Podiatric Medicine and Surgery, The Jewish Hospital–Mercy Health, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Robert Brarens
- Department of Podiatric Medicine and Surgery, The Jewish Hospital–Mercy Health, Cincinnati, OH
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Winborn J, Kerrigan S. Stability and Hydrolysis of Desomorphine-Glucuronide. J Anal Toxicol 2019; 43:536-542. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkz021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
AbstractDesomorphine, the principal opioid in Krokodil, has an analgesic potency approximately ten-times that of morphine. Similar to other opioids, during phase II metabolism it undergoes conjugation with glucuronic acid to form desomorphine-glucuronide. Although hydrolysis of conjugated species is sometimes required prior to analysis, desomorphine-glucuronide has not been fully investigated. In this study, six hydrolysis procedures were optimized and evaluated. Deconjugation efficiencies using chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis were evaluated and stability in aqueous solution was assessed. Acid hydrolysis was compared with five β-glucuronidase sources (BGTurbo™, IMCSzyme™, Escherichia coli, Helix pomatia and Patella vulgata). At optimal conditions, each hydrolysis method produced complete hydrolysis (≥96%). However, under simulated challenging conditions, P. vulgata was the most efficient β-glucuronidase for the hydrolysis of desomorphine-glucuronide. Both BGTurbo™ and IMCSzyme™ offered fast hydrolysis with no need for sample cleanup prior to liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time of flight-mass spectrometry (LC-Q/TOF-MS) analysis. Hydrolysates using E. coli, H. pomatia and P. vulgata underwent additional sample treatment using β-Gone™ cartridges. Additionally, the stability of free and conjugated drug was evaluated at elevated temperature (60°C) in aqueous solutions between pH 4 and 10. No degradation was observed for either desomorphine or desomorphine-glucuronide under any of the conditions tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Winborn
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Box 2525, 1003 Bowers Blvd, Huntsville, TX 77341, USA
| | - Sarah Kerrigan
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Box 2525, 1003 Bowers Blvd, Huntsville, TX 77341, USA
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Winborn J, Kerrigan S. Quantitative analysis of desomorphine in blood and urine using solid phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2019; 1106-1107:43-49. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2018.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Winborn J, Kerrigan S. Analysis of Desomorphine in Urine Using Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 43:340-345. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 10/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Winborn
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, 1003 Bowers Blvd, Huntsville, TX, USA
| | - Sarah Kerrigan
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, 1003 Bowers Blvd, Huntsville, TX, USA
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12
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In vitro metabolism of desomorphine. Forensic Sci Int 2018; 289:140-149. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Sorrentino A, Trotta S, Colucci AP, Aventaggiato L, Marzullo A, Solarino B. Lethal endomyocarditis caused by chronic “Krokodil” intoxication. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2018; 14:229-235. [DOI: 10.1007/s12024-018-9967-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Raevis JJ, Shaik N, Tseng J. Intravenous Drug Use-Associated Scopulariopsis Endophthalmitis Treated with Systemic and Intravitreal Voriconazole. Case Rep Ophthalmol 2018; 9:37-42. [PMID: 29643780 PMCID: PMC5892322 DOI: 10.1159/000485552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To report a case of intravenous (i.v.) heroin use-associated endogenous endophthalmitis caused by Scopulariopsis fungal species, and its response to intravitreal and oral voriconazole treatments. Patient A 21-year-old-female with chronic hepatitis C and i.v. heroin use presented with subacute decreased vision to hand motion in her left eye. Results Endogenous fungal endophthalmitis caused by Scopulariopsis was confirmed by vitreous biopsy. The patient improved clinically after vitrectomy with intravitreal voriconazole and 3 weeks of oral voriconazole. The final vision was 20/60 after 6 months. Conclusions Scopulariopsis is a rare cause of endophthalmitis, and is often difficult to treat due to its resistance to commonly used antifungals. This case is the first report of Scopulariopsis endophthalmitis secondary to i.v. drug use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Raevis
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, USA
| | - Neha Shaik
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, USA
| | - Joseph Tseng
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, USA
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Labay LM, Catanese CA. Illicit Drug Delivery Via Administration of Human Blood. J Forensic Sci 2017; 63:644-647. [PMID: 28580580 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2017] [Revised: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The physiological, psychological, and social consequences associated with illicit drug use are well documented. In addition to the effects directly related to the drug(s), the delivery mechanism can precipitate other serious health conditions. A case is reported where an individual stopped by law enforcement was discovered to be in possession of a vial containing a red-colored fluid, which the person stated was blood and contained fentanyl. Analysis by headspace GC, ELISA, and LC-TOF/MS screening in with mass spectral confirmation revealed the presence of several substances, including ethanol, methamphetamine, amphetamine, MDA, 6-monoacetylmorphine, codeine, morphine, alprazolam, delta-9 THC, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and norpseudoephedrine; serology testing verified the fluid was consistent with human blood. Methamphetamine was present at a dosage form amount (11 mg). The purpose of this study was to detail the analytical findings, interpret their meaning, and discuss the public health concerns associated with the drug delivery by the administration of human blood.
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Desomorphine (Krokodil): An overview of its chemistry, pharmacology, metabolism, toxicology and analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend 2017; 173:59-68. [PMID: 28199917 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Revised: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND "Krokodil" or "Crocodile" is an illegal homemade desomorphine drug obtained from chemical reactions of commercial codeine drugs with several other powerful and highly toxic chemical agents increasing its addiction and hallucinogenic effects when compared with other morphine analogues. METHODS This paper summarizes a complete review about an old drug called desomorphine (Krokodil), presenting its chemistry, pharmacology, metabolism, toxicology and analysis. RESULTS It is of particular interest and concern because this cheaper injectable semisynthetic opioid drug has been largely used in recent years for recreational purposes in several Eastern European as well as North and South American countries, despite known damage to health that continuous use might induce. These injuries are much stronger and more aggressive than morphine's, infecting and rotting skin and soft tissue to the bone of addicts at the point of injection in less than three years, which, in most cases, evolves to death. On this basis, it is imperative that literature reviews focus on the chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and analysis of dangerous Krokodil to find strategies for rapid and effective determination to mitigate its adverse effects on addicts and prevent consumption. CONCLUSIONS It is crucial to know the symptoms and consequences of the use of Krokodil, as well as METHODS: for identification and quantification of desomorphine, contaminants and metabolites, which can help the forensic work of diagnosis and propose actions to control and eradicate this great danger to public health around the world.
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Haskin A, Kim N, Aguh C. A new drug with a nasty bite: A case of krokodil-induced skin necrosis in an intravenous drug user. JAAD Case Rep 2016; 2:174-6. [PMID: 27222881 PMCID: PMC4864092 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdcr.2016.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Noori Kim
- Department of Dermatology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Crystal Aguh
- Department of Dermatology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Correspondence to: Crystal Aguh, MD, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, Mason F. Lord Bldg Center Tower Suite 2500, 5200 Eastern Ave, Baltimore, MD 21224.Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical CenterMason F. Lord Bldg Center Tower Suite 25005200 Eastern AveBaltimoreMD21224
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