Drug intelligence based on MDMA tablets data

75 years of forensic profiling: A critical review

The interest in characterization of drugs abused started in 1948 with the aim of determining the origin of opium. After 75 years there is still a great interest in this approach, called geo-profiling, chemical or forensic profiling in the following decades. Recently chemical attribution signatures (CAS) were proposed by the authors who studied "synthesis precursors and byproducts, impurities, degradation products, and metabolites in various biological matrices" of fentanyl. Forensic profiling evolved during these decades: new analytical approaches were tested and it was applied to more and more products, which threaten the health and security of citizens worldwide. In substances of natural origins (e.g. opium, cannabis and cocaine), it is possible to exploit the great variability of both elements and organic chemical compounds and to study chemical compounds such as reagents and solvents, by-products, and cutting agents used in the production chain. Profiles can be used to classify products from different seizures into groups of similar samples (tactical intelligence) or to determine the origin of samples (strategic intelligence). Chromatographic approaches coupled to mass spectrometry are very common to determine organic profiles, while elemental profiles are obtained by nuclear activation analysis, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry or ion beam analysis. A very important role in the field is played by isotope ratio analysis. Approaches to obtain forensic profiles are available also for chemical warfare agents, explosives, illegal medicines, doping agents, supplements, food. Chemometrics can be particularly useful to establish the authenticity of products and for the interpretation of large amount of forensic data. The future of forensic profiling is a challenge for forensic sciences. Organized crime is involved in the manufacturing of a large number of illegal products and forensic profiling is a very powerful tool to support the health of citizens and the administration of justice worldwide.

A systematic approach to the analysis of illicit drugs for DNA with an overview of the problems encountered

Due to the restricted nature of illicit drugs, it is difficult to conduct research surrounding the analysis of this drug material for any potential DNA in sufficient quantities acceptable for high numbers of replicates. Therefore, the current research available in peer reviewed journals thus far regarding analysing illicit drugs for DNA has been performed under varying experimental conditions, often using surrogate chemicals in place of illicit drugs. The data presented within this study originated from the analysis of genuine illicit drugs prepared both in controlled environments and those seized at the Australian border (and therefore from an uncontrolled environment) to determine if DNA can be obtained from this type of material. This study has been separated into three main parts (total n=114 samples): firstly, methamphetamine synthesised within a controlled environment was spiked with both saliva and trace DNA to determine the yield following DNA extraction; secondly, methamphetamine also synthesised in a controlled environment but on a larger scale was tested for the amount of DNA added incidentally throughout the synthesis, including the additional steps of recrystallising, homogenising and "cutting" the drug material to simulate preparation for distribution; and thirdly, the detection of human DNA within samples of cocaine and heroin seized at the Australian border. The DNA Fast Flow Microcon Device was utilised to concentrate all replicates from the same source into one combined extract to improve the DNA profiles for the samples where no DNA spiking occurred. Full STR profiles were successfully obtained from drug samples spiked with both saliva and trace DNA. Methamphetamine was present in the final DNA extracts and caused incompatibilities with the quantification of DNA using Qubit. The yields of DNA from drugs not spiked with DNA sources were much lower, resulting in 36 % of samples yielding alleles where all others did not. These results were not unexpected given these were realistic drug samples where the history of the drug material was unknown. This is the first study to obtain DNA profiles from genuine illicit drug material in both controlled and uncontrolled environments and indicates that the analysis of illicit drugs for DNA is an avenue worth pursuing to provide information which can in turn assist with disrupting the supply of these drugs. Given that DNA profiling is carried out worldwide using essentially the same systems as described within this study, the potential for impact is on a national and international scale.

Cannabis profiling of seized samples: An intra-location variability study using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry profiles and multivariate data analysis

Yearly, cannabis belongs to the most seized drugs worldwide. During judicial investigations, illicit cannabis profiling can be performed to compare seized herbal material. However, comparison is challenging because of the natural heterogeneity of the psychoactive crop. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) profiles, consisting of eight cannabinoids, were used to study the intra-location (within) and inter-location (between) variabilities. Decision thresholds were derived from the 95% and 99% confidence limits, applying Pearson correlation coefficients for the intra-location samples. The false negatives and false positives (FPs) determined the discriminative power of different pretreatments applied to obtain the lowest FP error rate possible. Initially, a 97 samples data set was used and with log transformation as pretreatment, a decrease in FPs from 38% and 45% FPs to 17% and 22%, for both confidence limits, respectively, was seen relative to internal standard normalization that was used as reference. An additional intra-plantation variability study with 130 samples verified whether the initial model contained sufficient within-location information, but this was not the case. Hence, a combined data matrix was constructed with all seized samples. Log transformation provided the best FP results for both limits, that is, an improvement from 58% and 64% to 21% and 26%, respectively, was seen. The representativeness of these 'linked' thresholds was demonstrated using both cross-validation and an external set, for which similar FP results as for the calibration set were obtained. By applying data pretreatment, a significant improvement was observed to distinguish seized samples. However, the FP rate is still not at an acceptable level to defend in court.

State-of-the-Art Analytical Approaches for Illicit Drug Profiling in Forensic Investigations

In forensic chemistry, when investigating seized illicit drugs, the profiling or chemical fingerprinting of drugs is considered fundamental. This involves the identification, quantitation and categorization of drug samples into groups, providing investigative leads such as a common or different origin of seized samples. Further goals of drug profiling include the elucidation of synthetic pathways, identification of adulterants and impurities, as well as identification of a drug's geographic origin, specifically for plant-derived exhibits. The aim of this state-of-art-review is to present the traditional and advanced analytical approaches commonly followed by forensic chemists worldwide for illicit drug profiling. We discussed numerous methodologies for the physical and chemical profiling of organic and inorganic impurities found in illicit drug. Applications of powerful spectroscopic and chromatographic tools for illicit drug profiling including isotope-Ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), gas chromatography-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-IRMS), ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC), thin layer chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) were discussed. Altogether, the techniques covered in this paper to profile seized illicit drugs could aid forensic chemists in selecting and applying a suitable method to extract valuable profiling data.

Recovery of integrated and surface trace DNA from illicit drug tablets

In many parts of the world, tablets are a commonly encountered form of illicit drug preparation. Whilst previous research has investigated the feasibility of detecting trace DNA on illicit drug capsules, this has not been performed for tablets. Tablets have a unique substrate surface and therefore the amount of DNA transferring to them and persisting on them may be different to capsules; there may also be differences in the collection efficiency and the outcome of downstream DNA processing and analysis steps. The ability to profile the DNA from individuals who handled tablets during their preparation and distribution would add another level of discrimination between various drug seizures or corroborate chemical profiling outcomes which may link various seizures to a common origin. DNA from two different individuals (male and female) was added to the tablets in two stages. Firstly, tablet powder was spiked with DNA from one individual to mimic the situation where DNA traces are incorporated during the drug synthesis or final drying stages. The powder was then pressed into tablets in a clean environment without intentional addition of DNA. Subsequently, a second individual counted out the tablets into bags of ten to mimic the preparation for distribution at a user level. The exterior of the tablet was swabbed and then the entire tablet and the swab were put through separate DNA extractions, yielding two DNA extracts for each tablet. Swabs of the exterior tablet surface yielded single source DNA profiles that identified the tablet handler in 100 % of samples. The tablet extract yielded the donor of the DNA intentionally added within the drug powder in 80% of samples with varying levels of support, however contributions of the exterior handler were detected in 60 % of samples. The identification of individuals potentially involved in the synthesis of the drugs compared to the distribution of the tablets will provide invaluable strategic intelligence related to illicit drug investigations and to law enforcement agencies.

Gas Chromatographic Fingerprint Analysis for the Comparison of Seized Cannabis Samples

Cannabis sativa L. is widely used as recreational illegal drugs. Illicit Cannabis profiling, comparing seized samples, is challenging due to natural Cannabis heterogeneity. The aim of this study was to use GC-FID and GC-MS herbal fingerprints for intra (within)- and inter (between)-location variability evaluation. This study focused on finding an acceptable threshold to link seized samples. Through Pearson correlation-coefficient calculations between intra-location samples, 'linked' thresholds were derived using 95% and 99% confidence limits. False negative (FN) and false positive (FP) error rate calculations, aiming at obtaining the lowest possible FP value, were performed for different data pre-treatments. Fingerprint-alignment parameters were optimized using Automated Correlation-Optimized Warping (ACOW) or Design of Experiments (DoE), which presented similar results. Hence, ACOW data, as reference, showed 54% and 65% FP values (95 and 99% confidence, respectively). An additional fourth root normalization pre-treatment provided the best results for both the GC-FID and GC-MS datasets. For GC-FID, which showed the best improved FP error rate, 54 and 65% FP for the reference data decreased to 24 and 32%, respectively, after fourth root transformation. Cross-validation showed FP values similar as the entire calibration set, indicating the representativeness of the thresholds. A noteworthy improvement in discrimination between seized Cannabis samples could be concluded.

Illicit drug profiling practices in Finland: An exploratory study about end users' perceptions

Illicit drug profiling (i.e. chemical and/or physical profiling) to compare and relate illicit drugs samples has been actively used in routine case work at the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) in Finland. This preliminary and exploratory work reviews NBI's illicit drug profiling practices. Particular emphasis is put on communication of forensic results and how the NBI has promoted the use of forensic data in an intelligence perspective by establishing a case coordination service. Moreover, our study evaluates the comprehension, integration and usefulness of illicit drug profiling from end users' point of view by means of an online survey and face-to-face interviews. Findings are compared with theoretical aspects as described in literature. Results show that in the Finnish context illicit drug profiling is used and useful in the investigation and in court. From end users' perspective, real practical relevance relies in its use as intelligence during the investigation. However, to be truly useful, illicit drug profiling results must be communicated promptly during the investigation, with sufficient clarity and interpreted correctly by end users. Factors influencing the integration of illicit drug profiling in the forensic process are addressed.

Precursors and Prices

Few analyses of basic elements of the synthetic drug market have been conducted, particularly in regard to its structural features. Synthetic drug’s relatively recent classification as an illicit substance, coupled with its distinct clandestine characteristics, has hindered the development of reliable assessments of the market’s structural features. Using information derived from 365 seized synthetic drugs, this study aims to reliably examine the structural attributes of Quebec’s synthetic drug market by merging two approaches: drug composition and economic analysis. Findings for the drug composition analysis indicate that the market is composed of a high number of small structures, indicating a competitive and decentralized market. Providing complementary information, the economic analysis revealed that differential production costs and relations between traffickers influence price variations, depending on the region. These results emphasize the need to design policies that account for regional differences as well as reflect the competitive nature of the market.

Physical profile of counterfeit tablets Viagra® and Cialis®

The profile of tablets containing an active pharmacological ingredient can be obtained using different sets of properties, including physical and chemical aspects. The first measurements carried out on tablets are the physical characteristics also called post-tabletting batch (post-TB) characteristics. These data may be valuable to assist in the detection of pharmaceutical product forgery and may also be used in a forensic intelligence perspective when inserted into databases. This work is focused on the physical characteristics of Cialis® and Viagra® tablets seized by the Brazilian Federal Police in the Rio Grande do Sul state. Using the F-test (ANOVA), all samples of counterfeit Viagra® (n = 28) and Cialis® (n = 40) were well distinguished from authentic samples by the following post-TB characteristics: length (major and minor), thickness, and mass. Using the exploratory statistical technique of Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA), tablets with similar physical profiles were grouped. This result may indicate a common illicit production. We observed the validity of using post-TB properties to generate - in a fast and reliable manner and with no sample preparation - a technological profile that joins itself to the other analytical methods assisting in routine forensic detection of counterfeit Viagra® and Cialis®.