A noncanonical NF-κB pathway through the p50 subunit regulates Bcl-2 overexpression during an oxidative-conditioning hormesis response

Unlocking the Therapeutic Potential of BCL-2 Associated Protein Family: Exploring BCL-2 Inhibitors in Cancer Therapy

Apoptosis, programmed cell death pathway, is a vital physiological mechanism that ensures cellular homeostasis and overall cellular well-being. In the context of cancer, where evasion of apoptosis is a hallmark, the overexpression of anti-apoptotic proteins like Bcl2, Bcl-xL and Mcl-1 has been documented. Consequently, these proteins have emerged as promising targets for therapeutic interventions. The BCL-2 protein family is central to apoptosis and plays a significant importance in determining cellular fate serving as a critical determinant in this biological process. This review offers a comprehensive exploration of the BCL-2 protein family, emphasizing its dual nature. Specifically, certain members of this family promote cell survival (known as anti-apoptotic proteins), while others are involved in facilitating cell death (referred to as pro-apoptotic and BH3-only proteins). The potential of directly targeting these proteins is examined, particularly due to their involvement in conferring resistance to traditional cancer therapies. The effectiveness of such targeting strategies is also discussed, considering the tumor's propensity for anti-apoptotic pathways. Furthermore, the review highlights emerging research on combination therapies, where BCL-2 inhibitors are used synergistically with other treatments to enhance therapeutic outcomes. By understanding and manipulating the BCL-2 family and its associated pathways, we open doors to innovative and more effective cancer treatments, offering hope for resistant and aggressive cases.

Insights into the mechanism of transcription factors in Pb2+-induced apoptosis

The health risks associated with exposure to heavy metals, such as Pb2+, are increasingly concerning the public. Pb2+ can cause significant harm to the human body through oxidative stress, autophagy, inflammation, and DNA damage, disrupting cellular homeostasis and ultimately leading to cell death. Among these mechanisms, apoptosis is considered crucial. It has been confirmed that transcription factors play a central role as mediators during the apoptosis process. Interestingly, these transcription factors have different effects on apoptosis depending on the concentration and duration of Pb2+ exposure. In this article, we systematically summarize the significant roles of several transcription factors in Pb2+-induced apoptosis. This information provides insights into therapeutic strategies and prognostic biomarkers for diseases related to Pb2+ exposure.

Ginsenoside-Rg1 combined with a conditioned medium from induced neuron-like hUCMSCs alleviated the apoptosis in a cell model of ALS through regulating the NF-κB/Bcl-2 pathway

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease affecting both upper and lower motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. One important aspect of ALS pathogenesis is superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) mutant-mediated mitochondrial toxicity, leading to apoptosis in neurons. This study aimed to evaluate the neural protective synergistic effects of ginsenosides Rg1 (G-Rg1) and conditioned medium (CM) on a mutational SOD1 cell model, and to explore the underlying mechanisms. We found that the contents of nerve growth factor, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor significantly increased in CM after human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMSCs) were exposed to neuron differentiation reagents for seven days. CM or G-Rg1 decreased the apoptotic rate of SOD1^G93A-NSC34 cells to a certain extent, but their combination brought about the least apoptosis, compared with CM or G-Rg1 alone. Further research showed that the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 was upregulated in all the treatment groups. Proteins associated with mitochondrial apoptotic pathways, such as Bax, caspase 9 (Cas-9), and cytochrome c (Cyt c), were downregulated. Furthermore, CM or G-Rg1 also inhibited the activation of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway by reducing the phosphorylation of p65 and IκBα. CM/G-Rg1 or their combination also reduced the apoptotic rate induced by betulinic acid (BetA), an agonist of the NF-κB signaling pathway. In summary, the combination of CM and G-Rg1 effectively reduced the apoptosis of SOD1^G93A-NSC34 cells through suppressing the NF-κB/Bcl-2 signaling pathway (Fig. 1 is a graphical representation of the abstract).

Adaptation to oxidative stress at cellular and tissue level

Several in vitro and in vivo investigations have already proved that cells and tissues, when pre-exposed to low oxidative stress by different stimuli such as chemical, physical agents and environmental factors, display more resistance against subsequent stronger ischaemic injuries, resulting in an adaptive response known as ischaemic preconditioning (IPC). The aim of this review is to report the most recent knowledge about the complex adaptive mechanisms, including signalling transduction pathways, antioxidant systems, apoptotic and inflammation pathways, underlying cell protection against oxidative damage. In addition, an update about in vivo adaptation strategies in response to ischaemic/reperfusion episodes and brain trauma is also given.

tBHQ Induces a Hormetic Response That Protects L6 Myoblasts against the Toxic Effect of Palmitate

Nutritional status, in particular overweight and obesity, as well as sedentarism and high-fat diet consumption, are important risk factors to develop chronic diseases, which have a higher impact on the elderly's health. Therefore, these nutritional problems have become a concern to human healthspan and longevity. The fatty acids obtained thru the diet or due to fatty acid synthesis during obesity accumulate within the body generating toxicity and cell death. Fat is not only stored in adipose tissue, but it can also be stored in skeletal muscle. Palmitic acid (PA) has been reported as one of the most important saturated free fatty acids; it is associated to chronic oxidative stress and increased mitochondrial ROS production causing cell death by apoptosis. In skeletal muscle, palmitate has been associated with various pathophysiological consequences, which lead to muscle deterioration during aging and obesity. Since molecules that modify redox state have been proven to prevent cellular damage by inducing a hormetic response, the aim of this study was to evaluate if tert-butylhydroquinone (tBHQ) could activate an antioxidant hormetic response that would be able to protect L6 myoblasts from palmitate toxic effect. Our results provide evidence that tBHQ is able to protect L6 myoblasts against the toxicity induced by sodium palmitate due to a synergistic activation of different signaling pathways such as Nrf2 and NF-κB.

Research progress on the relationship between lung cancer drug-resistance and microRNAs

Lung cancer, a malignant tumor with the highest death rate of cancer, seriously endangers human health. And its pathogenesis and mechanism of drug resistance has been partially clarified, especially for the signal pathway of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). The targeting therapy of EGFR signaling pathway in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has achieved a certain effect, but the two mutation of EGFR and other mechanisms of lung cancer resistance still greatly reduce the therapeutic effect of chemotherapy on it. MicroRNA is an endogenous non coding RNA, which has a regulatory function after transcriptional level. Recent studies on the mechanism of lung cancer resistance have found that a variety of microRNAs are related to the mechanism of lung cancer drug-resistance. They can regulate lung cancer resistance by participating in signal pathways, drug resistance genes and cell apoptosis, thus affecting the sensitivity of cancer cells to drugs. Therefore, microRNAs can be used as a specific target for the treatment of lung cancer and plays a vital role in the early diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of lung cancer. This article reviews the mechanisms of lung cancer resistance and its relationship with microRNAs.

MicroRNA-152 suppresses cisplatin resistance in A549 cells

The present study aimed to investigate the association between microRNA-152 and cisplatin resistance in non-small cell lung cancer. A549 and cisplatin-resistant A549 cells (A549/cis) were maintained in vitro. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was performed to analyze differences in microRNA-152 levels between A549 and A549/cis cells, and changes in Bcl-2 and NF-κB expression levels were analyzed via RT-qPCR and western blot analyses. MicroRNA-152 was overexpressed in A549/cis cells via transfection of a microRNA-152 mimic. Upon treating transfected or untransfected A549/cis cells with 2 µg/l cisplatin for 24 h, a Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, morphological analysis and flow cytometry analysis were performed to evaluate the effect of microRNA-152 on the inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis. Furthermore, changes in Bcl-2 and NF-κB expression levels in microRNA-152-overexpressing A549/cis cells were also analyzed. MicroRNA-152 was significantly downregulated and Bcl-2 and NF-κB were significantly upregulated in A549/cis cells (P<0.05). MicroRNA-152 upregulation enhanced the inhibitory effect of cisplatin on A549/cis cells. These results suggest that microRNA-152 downregulates Bcl-2 and NF-κB. MicroRNA-152 downregulation may induce cisplatin resistance in non-small cell lung cancer cells, whereas microRNA-152 upregulation may improve cisplatin sensitivity among A549/cis cells via downregulation of Bcl-2 and NF-κB.

Anxa2 gene silencing attenuates obesity-induced insulin resistance by suppressing the NF-κB signaling pathway

Insulin resistance (IR) continues to pose a major threat to public health due to its role in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome and its ever-increasing prevalence on a global scale. The aim of the current study was to investigate the efficacy of Anxa2 in obesity-induced IR through the mediation of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Microarray analysis was performed to screen differentially expressed genes associated with obesity. To verify whether Anxa2 was differentially expressed in IR triggered by obesity, IR mouse models were established in connection with a high-fat diet (HFD). In the mouse IR model, the role of differentially expressed Anxa2 in glycometabolism and IR was subsequently detected. To investigate the effect of Anxa2 on IR and its correlation with inflammation, a palmitic acid (PA)-induced IR cell model was established, with the relationship between Anxa2 and the NF-κB signaling pathway investigated accordingly. Anxa2 was determined to be highly expressed in IR. Silencing Anxa2 was shown to inhibit IR triggered by obesity. When Anxa2 was knocked down, elevated expression of phosphorylated insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1), IRS1 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor coactivator-1a, and glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity along with 2-deoxy-d-glucose uptake was detected, whereas decreased expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3, IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and p50 was observed. Taken together, the current study ultimately demonstrated that Anxa2 may be a novel drug strategy for IR disruption, indicating that Anxa2 gene silencing is capable of alleviating PA or HFD-induced IR and inflammation through its negative regulatory role in the process of p50 nuclear translocation of the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Neuronal-like differentiated SH-SY5Y cells adaptation to a mild and transient H2 O2 -induced oxidative stress

Preconditioning (PC) is a cell adaptive response to oxidative stress and, with regard to neurons, can be considered as a neuroprotective strategy. The aim of the present study was to verify how neuronal-like differentiated SH-SY5Y cells adapt to a mild and transient H₂ O₂ -induced oxidative stress and, hence, whether may be considered as more sensitive cell model to study PC pathways. A first screening allowed to define H₂ O₂ concentrations for PC (10μM-50μM), applied before damage(100μM H₂ O₂ ). Cell viability measured 24 hours after 100μM H₂ O₂ -induced damage was ameliorated by 24-hour pre-exposure to low-concentration H₂ O₂ (10μM-30μM) with cell size as well restored. Markers for apoptosis (Bcl-2 and Bad), inflammation (iNOS), and redox system (MnSOD) were also determined, showing that, in cells pre-exposed to 10μM H₂ O₂ and then submitted to 100μM H₂ O₂ , Bcl-2 levels were higher, Bad and iNOS levels were lower than those observed in damaged cells, and MnSOD levels were unchanged. Such findings show that (1) neuronal-like differentiated SH-SY5Y cells are a suitable model to investigate PC response and more sensitive to the effect of a mild and transient H₂ O₂ -induced oxidative stress with respect to other neuronal cells; (2) 10μM H₂ O₂ -induced PC is mediated by apoptotic and inflammatory pathways, unlike antioxidant system; (3) such neuroprotective strategy and underlying signals proven in neuronal-like differentiated SH-SY5Y cells may contribute to understand in vivo PC mechanisms and to define a window for pharmacological intervention, namely, related to ischemic brain damage.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Neuronal-like differentiated SH-SY5Y cells are a suitable model to investigate PC, an endogenous neuroprotective response to a mild and transient H₂ O₂ -induced oxidative stress, elicited by 24-hour exposure to very low H₂ O₂ concentrations and mediated by both apoptotic and inflammatory pathways. This model reflects in vivo PC mechanisms occurring after brain trauma and provides novel information about pathways and time of protection useful for an appropriate pharmacological intervention.

Non-linear actions of physiological agents: Finite disarrangements elicit fitness benefits

Finite disarrangements of important (vital) physiological agents and nutrients can induce plethora of beneficial effects, exceeding mere attenuation of the specific stress. Such response to disrupted homeostasis appears to be universally conserved among species. The underlying mechanism of improved fitness and longevity, when physiological agents act outside their normal range is similar to hormesis, a phenomenon whereby toxins elicit beneficial effects at low doses. Due to similarity with such non-linear response to toxins described with J-shaped curve, we have coined a new term “mirror J-shaped curves” for non-linear response to finite disarrangement of physiological agents. Examples from the clinical trials and basic research are provided, along with the unifying mechanisms that tie classical non-linear response to toxins with the non-linear response to physiological agents (glucose, oxygen, osmolarity, thermal energy, calcium, body mass, calorie intake and exercise). Reactive oxygen species and cytosolic calcium seem to be common triggers of signaling pathways that result in these beneficial effects. Awareness of such phenomena and exploring underlying mechanisms can help physicians in their everyday practice. It can also benefit researchers when designing studies and interpreting growing number of scientific data showing non-linear responses to physiological agents.

Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation influences the whole blood transcriptome in women with obesity, associated with pro-resolving lipid mediator production

The n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) may reduce low-grade inflammation associated with obesity. The relationship between therapeutic response to n-3 PUFAs and modification of the transcriptome in obesity or metabolic syndrome remains to be explored. Blood samples were obtained from women with obesity before and after three-months supplementation with a moderate dose of n-3 PUFAs (1.8g EPA+DHA per day) or from controls. n-3 PUFAs (GC) and plasma concentrations of lipoxins, resolvins, protectin X (GC-MS/MS) and inflammatory markers (ELISA) were measured. Whole blood transcriptome was assayed using microarray. Women supplemented with n-3 PUFAs for 3months had significantly higher levels of EPA and DHA in plasma phosphatidylcholine. n-3 PUFA supplementation, in contrast to placebo, significantly decreased the concentrations of several inflammatory markers (SELE, MCP-1, sVCAM-1, sPECAM-1, and hsCRP), fasting triglycerides and insulin and increased the concentrations of pro-resolving DHA derivatives in plasma. The microarray data demonstrated effects of n-3 PUFAs on PPAR-α, NRF2 and NF-κB target genes. N-3 PUFAs increased DHA-derived pro-resolving mediators in women with obesity. Elevated resolvins and up-regulation of the resolvin receptor occurred in parallel with activation of PPAR-α target genes related to lipid metabolism and of NRF2 up-regulated antioxidant enzymes.

Distinctive adaptive response to repeated exposure to hydrogen peroxide associated with upregulation of DNA repair genes and cell cycle arrest

Many environmental and physiological stresses are chronic. Thus, cells are constantly exposed to diverse types of genotoxic insults that challenge genome stability, including those that induce oxidative DNA damage. However, most in vitro studies that model cellular response to oxidative stressors employ short exposures and/or acute stress models. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that chronic and repeated exposure to a micromolar concentration of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) could activate DNA damage responses, resulting in cellular adaptations. For this purpose, we developed an in vitro model in which we incubated mouse myoblast cells with a steady concentration of ~50 μM H₂O₂ for one hour daily for seven days, followed by a final challenge of a 10 or 20X higher dose of H₂O₂ (0.5 or 1 mM). We report that intermittent long-term exposure to this oxidative stimulus nearly eliminated cell toxicity and significantly decreased genotoxicity (in particular, a >5-fold decreased in double-strand breaks) resulting from subsequent acute exposure to oxidative stress. This protection was associated with cell cycle arrest in G2/M and induction of expression of nine DNA repair genes. Together, this evidence supports an adaptive response to chronic, low-level oxidative stress that results in genomic protection and up-regulated maintenance of cellular homeostasis.

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Repetitive stimulus with subtoxic H₂O₂ resulted in cellular adaptive response.

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Cells responded by abridged cytotoxicity and reduced intracellular ROS.

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Adaptive response mitigated the genotoxicity of acute oxidative insults.

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Adaption induced overexpression of selected genes of the BER, NER, MMR pathways.

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Chronic and repetitive H₂O₂ resulted in cell cycle checkpoint arrest.

Unexpected effects of sublethal doses of insecticide on the peripheral olfactory response and sexual behavior in a pest insect

Pesticides have long been used as the main solution to limit agricultural pests, but their widespread use resulted in chronic or diffuse environmental pollutions, development of insect resistances, and biodiversity reduction. The effects of low residual doses of these chemical products on organisms that affect both targeted species (crop pests) but also beneficial insects became a major concern, particularly because low doses of pesticides can induce unexpected positive--also called hermetic--effects on insects, leading to surges in pest population growth at greater rate than what would have been observed without pesticide application. The present study aimed to examine the effects of sublethal doses of deltamethrin, one of the most used synthetic pyrethroids, known to present a residual activity and persistence in the environment, on the peripheral olfactory system and sexual behavior of a major pest insect, the cotton leafworm Spodoptera littoralis. We highlighted here a hormetic effect of sublethal dose of deltamethrin on the male responses to sex pheromone, without any modification of their response to host-plant odorants. We also identified several antennal actors potentially involved in this hormetic effect and in the antennal detoxification or antennal stress response of/to deltamethrin exposure.

Pre-exposure of neuroblastoma cell line to pulsed electromagnetic field prevents H2 O2 -induced ROS production by increasing MnSOD activity

Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) have been linked to increased risk of cancers and neurodegenerative diseases; however, EMFs can also elicit positive effects on biological systems, and redox status seems crucially involved in EMF biological effects. This study aimed to assess whether a short and repeated pulsed EMF (PEMF) could trigger adaptive responses against an oxidative insult in a neuronal cellular model. We found that a 40 min overall (four times a week, 10 min each) pre-exposure to PEMF did not affect major physiological parameters and led to a significant increase of Mn-dependent superoxide dismutase activity in the human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line. In addition, we found PEMF-pre-exposed cells exhibited decreased reactive oxygen species production following a 30 min H2 O2 challenge, with respect to non pre-exposed cells. Our findings might provide new insights on the role played by short and repeated PEMF stimulations in the enhancement of cellular defenses against oxidative insults. Although studies in normal neuronal cells would be useful to further confirm our hypothesis, we suggest that specific PEMF treatments may have potential biological repercussions in diseases where oxidative stress is implicated.

miR-135a inhibition protects A549 cells from LPS-induced apoptosis by targeting Bcl-2

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a severe clinical condition with high morbidity and mortality. Apoptosis is a key pathologic feature of ALI, and Bcl-2 plays an important role during the pathogenesis of ALI via the regulation of apoptosis. However, the regulation of Bcl-2 during ALI, particularly through microRNAs, remains unclear. We hypothesize that certain miRNAs may play deleterious or protective roles in ALI via the regulation of Bcl-2. The LPS stimulation of A549 cells was used to mimic ALI in vitro. First, we confirmed that Bcl-2 is involved in LPS-induced apoptosis in A549 cells. Then, bioinformatic analyses and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction assays were performed to screen for miRNAs targeting Bcl-2. We observed that miR-135a was markedly increased in LPS-challenged A549 cells. miR-135a inhibition markedly restored Bcl-2 expression and protected A549 cells from LPS-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, bioinformatic analysis and luciferase activity assays were conducted to confirm that miR-135a binds directly to the 3'-untranslated region of Bcl-2 and suppresses its expression. Interestingly, the inhibition of miR-135a did not attenuate apoptosis under LPS-treated conditions when Bcl-2 was knocked down. Therefore, we suggest that miR-135a regulation of LPS-induced apoptosis in A549 cells may depend in part on the regulation of Bcl-2. The miR-135a/Bcl-2 signaling pathway may be a novel therapeutic target for the prevention of ALI.

NF-κB plays a key role in microcystin-RR-induced HeLa cell proliferation and apoptosis

Microcystins (MCs) are well-known cyanobacterial toxins produced in eutrophic waters and can act as potential carcinogens and have caused serious risk to human health. However, pleiotropic even paradoxical actions of cells exposure to MCs have been reported, and the mechanisms of MC-induced tumorigenesis and apoptosis are still unknown. In this study, we performed the first comprehensive in vitro investigation on carcinogenesis associated with nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and its downstream genes in HeLa cells (Human cervix adenocarcinoma cell line from epithelial cells) exposure to MC-RR. HeLa cells were treated with 0, 20, 40, 60, and 80 µg/mL MC-RR for 4, 8, 12, and 24 h. HeLa cells presented dualistic responses to different doses of MCs. CCK8 assay showed that MC-RR exposure evidently enhanced cell viability of HeLa cells at lower MCs doses. Cell cycle and apoptosis analysis revealed that lower MCs doses promoted G1/S transition and cell proliferation while higher doses of MCs induced apoptosis, with a dose-dependent manner. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) revealed that MC-RR could increase/decrease NF-κB activity at lower/higher MC-RR doses, respectively. Furthermore, the expression of NF-κB downstream target genes including c-FLIP, cyclinD1, c-myc, and c-IAP2 showed the same variation trend as NF-κB activity both at mRNA and protein levels, which were induced by lower doses of MC-RR and suppressed by higher doses. Our data verified for the first time that NF-κB pathway may mediate MC-induced cell proliferation and apoptosis and provided a better understanding of the molecular mechanism for potential carcinogenicity of MC-RR.

Protein redox modification as a cellular defense mechanism against tissue ischemic injury

Protein oxidative or redox modifications induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) not only can impair protein function, but also can regulate and expand protein function under a variety of stressful conditions. Protein oxidative modifications can generally be classified into two categories: irreversible oxidation and reversible oxidation. While irreversible oxidation usually leads to protein aggregation and degradation, reversible oxidation that usually occurs on protein cysteine residues can often serve as an “on and off” switch that regulates protein function and redox signaling pathways upon stress challenges. In the context of ischemic tolerance, including preconditioning and postconditioning, increasing evidence has indicated that reversible cysteine redox modifications such as S-sulfonation, S-nitrosylation, S-glutathionylation, and disulfide bond formation can serve as a cellular defense mechanism against tissue ischemic injury. In this review, I highlight evidence of cysteine redox modifications as protective measures in ischemic injury, demonstrating that protein redox modifications can serve as a therapeutic target for attenuating tissue ischemic injury. Prospectively, more oxidatively modified proteins will need to be identified that can play protective roles in tissue ischemic injury, in particular, when the oxidative modifications of such identified proteins can be enhanced by pharmacological agents or drugs that are available or to be developed.

Overexpressing neuroglobin improves functional recovery by inhibiting neuronal apoptosis after spinal cord injury

The current study was performed to evaluate the mechanisms and therapeutic effects of overexpressing neuroglobin (Ngb) on spinal cord injury (SCI). Adeno-associated virus (AAV) was injected in the T12 section 7 days before SCI. Animals were randomly divided into four groups: a sham group, a vehicle group, an AAV-EGFP group and an AAV-Ngb group. Recovery of hind limb locomotor function was determined during the 3-week post operation period by the Basso, Beattie and Bresnahan locomotor rating scale. At 24 h after SCI and at the end of the study, the segments of spinal cord, centered with the lesion site were harvested for histopathological analysis. Immunofluorescence was performed using antibodies to recognize neuN in the lesion sections. At 24 h after SCI, the spinal cord tissue samples were removed to analyze tissue concentrations of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA). Apoptotic cells were assessed using a terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase, dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) kit. The expression of bcl-2, bax, cytochrome c, and cleaved caspase-3, were determined by Western blot assay and immunostaining analysis. The results showed that animals overexpressing Ngb had significantly greater recovery of locomotor function, less neuronal loss and fewer apoptotic cells. In addition, overexpressing Ngb significantly increased bcl-2 expression and SOD level, decreased bax expression, attenuated the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria to the cytosol fraction, and reduced the activity of caspase-3 and MDA level after SCI. These findings suggest, that overexpressing Ngb can significantly improve the recovery of locomotor function. This neuroprotective effect may be associated with the inhibition of neural apoptosis via the mitochondrial pathway.

Primary cultured astrocytes from old rats are capable to activate the Nrf2 response against MPP+ toxicity after tBHQ pretreatment

Astrocytes are key players for brain physiology, protecting neurons by releasing antioxidant enzymes; however, they are also susceptible to damage by neurotoxins. Nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like 2 (Nrf2) is a central regulator of the antioxidant response, and therefore, pharmacologic inducers are often used to activate this transcription factor to induce cellular protection. To date, it still remains unknown if cells from aged animals are capable of developing this response. Therefore, the purpose of this work was to determine if cortical astrocytes derived from old rats are able to respond to tertbuthyl-hydroquinene (tBHQ) pretreatment and stimulate the Nrf2-antioxidant response pathway to induce an antioxidant strategy against MPP+ toxicity, one of the most used molecules to model Parkinson's disease. Our results show that, although astrocytes from adult and old rats were more susceptible to MPP+ toxicity than astrocytes from newborn rats, when pretreated with tertbuthyl-hydroquinene, they were able to transactivate Nrf2, increasing antioxidant enzymes and developing cellular protection. These results are discussed in terms of the doses used to create protective responses.