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Dagnell M, Arnér ESJ. Endogenous electrophiles and peroxymonocarbonate can link tyrosine phosphorylation cascades with the cytosolic TXNRD1 selenoprotein and the KEAP1/NRF2 system. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2024; 83:102522. [PMID: 39243480 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2024.102522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2024] [Revised: 08/09/2024] [Accepted: 08/09/2024] [Indexed: 09/09/2024]
Abstract
Endogenously formed reactive molecules, such as lipid peroxides, 4-hydroxynonenal, methylglyoxal and other reactive oxygen species, can have major effects on cells. Accumulation of these molecules is counteracted by antioxidant enzymes, including the glutathione (GSH) and thioredoxin (Trx) systems, in turn regulated by the KEAP1/NRF2 system. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) and their counteracting protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTP) are also modulated through redox regulation of PTP activities. The cytosolic selenoprotein thioredoxin reductase (TXNRD1) is particularly prone to attack at its easily accessible catalytic selenocysteine (Sec) residue by reactive electrophilic compounds. Therefore, we here discuss how endogenously formed electrophiles can modulate RTK/PTP signaling in a concentration- and time dependent manner by reactions either directly or indirectly linking TXNRD1 with the KEAP1/NRF2 system. Moreover, recent findings suggest that endogenous formation of peroxymonocarbonate can efficiently inhibit PTP activities and stimulate RTK signaling, seemingly bypassing PTP reduction as otherwise supported by the GSH/Trx systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Dagnell
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Elias S J Arnér
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Selenoprotein Research and the National Tumor Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Oncology, Budapest, Hungary.
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2
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Nègre-Salvayre A, Salvayre R. Reactive Carbonyl Species and Protein Lipoxidation in Atherogenesis. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:232. [PMID: 38397830 PMCID: PMC10886358 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13020232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is a multifactorial disease of medium and large arteries, characterized by the presence of lipid-rich plaques lining the intima over time. It is the main cause of cardiovascular diseases and death worldwide. Redox imbalance and lipid peroxidation could play key roles in atherosclerosis by promoting a bundle of responses, including endothelial activation, inflammation, and foam cell formation. The oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids generates various lipid oxidation products such as reactive carbonyl species (RCS), including 4-hydroxy alkenals, malondialdehyde, and acrolein. RCS covalently bind to nucleophilic groups of nucleic acids, phospholipids, and proteins, modifying their structure and activity and leading to their progressive dysfunction. Protein lipoxidation is the non-enzymatic post-translational modification of proteins by RCS. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation and apolipoprotein B (apoB) modification by RCS play a major role in foam cell formation. Moreover, oxidized LDLs are a source of RCS, which form adducts on a huge number of proteins, depending on oxidative stress intensity, the nature of targets, and the availability of detoxifying systems. Many systems are affected by lipoxidation, including extracellular matrix components, membranes, cytoplasmic and cytoskeletal proteins, transcription factors, and other components. The mechanisms involved in lipoxidation-induced vascular dysfunction are not fully elucidated. In this review, we focus on protein lipoxidation during atherogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Nègre-Salvayre
- Inserm Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR), 1297 Toulouse, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) Rangueil—BP 84225, 31432 Toulouse CEDEX 4, France;
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Toulouse, 31432 Toulouse, France
| | - Robert Salvayre
- Inserm Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR), 1297 Toulouse, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) Rangueil—BP 84225, 31432 Toulouse CEDEX 4, France;
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Toulouse, 31432 Toulouse, France
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3
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Moldogazieva NT, Zavadskiy SP, Astakhov DV, Terentiev AA. Lipid peroxidation: Reactive carbonyl species, protein/DNA adducts, and signaling switches in oxidative stress and cancer. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 687:149167. [PMID: 37939506 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.149167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
Under the exposure of lipids to reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation proceeds non-enzymatically and generates an extremely heterogeneous mixture of reactive carbonyl species (RCS). Among them, HNE, HHE, MDA, methylglyoxal, glyoxal, and acrolein are the most studied and/or abundant ones. Over the last decades, significant progress has been achieved in understanding mechanisms of RCS generation, protein/DNA adduct formation, and their identification and quantification in biological samples. In our review, we critically discuss the advancements in understanding the roles of RCS-induced protein/DNA modifications in signaling switches to provide adaptive cell response under physiological and oxidative stress conditions. At non-toxic concentrations, RCS modify susceptible Cys residue in c-Src to activate MAPK signaling and Cys, Lys, and His residues in PTEN to cause its reversible inactivation, thereby stimulating PI3K/PKB(Akt) pathway. RCS toxic concentrations cause irreversible Cys modifications in Keap1 and IKKβ followed by stabilization of Nrf2 and activation of NF-κB, respectively, for their nuclear translocation and antioxidant gene expression. Dysregulation of these mechanisms causes diseases including cancer. Alterations in RCS, RCS detoxifying enzymes, RCS-modified protein/DNA adducts, and signaling pathways have been implicated in various cancer types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurbubu T Moldogazieva
- Department of Pharmacology, A.P. Nelyubin Institute of Pharmacy, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991, 8 Trubetskaya Street, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Sergey P Zavadskiy
- Department of Pharmacology, A.P. Nelyubin Institute of Pharmacy, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991, 8 Trubetskaya Street, Moscow, Russia
| | - Dmitry V Astakhov
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Biodesign and Complex Systems Modelling, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991, 8 Trubetskaya Str., Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander A Terentiev
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, N.I. Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997, 1 Ostrovityanov Street, Moscow, Russia
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Zhang Y, Zhang TJ, Tu S, Zhang ZH, Meng FH. Identification of Novel Src Inhibitors: Pharmacophore-Based Virtual Screening, Molecular Docking and Molecular Dynamics Simulations. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25184094. [PMID: 32911607 PMCID: PMC7571137 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25184094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Src plays a crucial role in many signaling pathways and contributes to a variety of cancers. Therefore, Src has long been considered an attractive drug target in oncology. However, the development of Src inhibitors with selectivity and novelty has been challenging. In the present study, pharmacophore-based virtual screening and molecular docking were carried out to identify potential Src inhibitors. A total of 891 molecules were obtained after pharmacophore-based virtual screening, and 10 molecules with high docking scores and strong interactions were selected as potential active molecules for further study. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination and toxicity (ADMET) property evaluation was used to ascertain the drug-like properties of the obtained molecules. The proposed inhibitor–protein complexes were further subjected to molecular dynamics (MD) simulations involving root-mean-square deviation and root-mean-square fluctuation to explore the binding mode stability inside active pockets. Finally, two molecules (ZINC3214460 and ZINC1380384) were obtained as potential lead compounds against Src kinase. All these analyses provide a reference for the further development of novel Src inhibitors.
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Tomko N, Kluever M, Wu C, Zhu J, Wang Y, Salomon RG. 4-Hydroxy-7-oxo-5-heptenoic acid lactone is a potent inducer of brain cancer cell invasiveness that may contribute to the failure of anti-angiogenic therapies. Free Radic Biol Med 2020; 146:234-256. [PMID: 31715381 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2019.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we discovered that free radical-induced oxidative fragmentation of the docosahexaenoate ester of 2-lysophosphatidylcholine produces 4-hydroxy-7-oxo-5-heptenoic acid (HOHA) lactone that, in turn, promotes the migration and invasion of endothelial cells. This suggested that HOHA lactone might similarly promote migration and invasion of glioblastoma multiformae (GBM) brain cancer stem cells (CSCs). A bioinformatics analysis of clinical cancer genomic data revealed that matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)1 and three markers of oxidative stress - superoxide dismutase 2, NADPH oxidase 4, and carbonic anhydrase 9 - are upregulated in human mesenchymal GBM cancer tissue, and that MMP1 is positively correlated to all three of these oxidative stress markers. In addition, elevated levels of MMP1 are indicative of GBM invasion, while low levels of MMP1 indicate survival. We also explored the hypothesis that the transition from the proneural to the more aggressive mesenchymal phenotype, e.g., after treatment with an anti-angiogenic therapy, is promoted by the effects of lipid oxidation products on GBM CSCs. We found that low micromolar concentrations of HOHA lactone increase the cell migration velocity of cultured GBM CSCs, and induce the expression of MMP1 and two protein biomarkers of the proneural to mesenchymal transition (PMT): p65 NF-κβ and vimentin. Exposure of cultured GBM CSCs to HOHA lactone causes an increase in phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and Akt kinases that are dependent on both protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) and MMP1 activity. We conclude that HOHA lactone promotes the PMT in GBM through the activation of PAR1 and MMP1. This contributes to a fatal flaw in antiangiogenic, chemo, and radiation therapies: they promote oxidative stress and the generation of HOHA lactone in the tumor that fosters a change from the proliferative proneural to the migratory mesenchymal GBM CSC phenotype that seeds new tumor growth. Inhibition of PAR1 and HOHA lactone are potential new therapeutic targets for impeding GBM tumor recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Tomko
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Mark Kluever
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Chunying Wu
- Department of Radiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Junqing Zhu
- Department of Radiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Yanming Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA; Department of Radiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Robert G Salomon
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
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Yuan C, Wang W, Wang J, Li X, Wu YB, Li S, Lu L, Zhu M, Xing S, Fu X. Potent and selective PTP1B inhibition by a platinum(ii) complex: possible implications for a new antitumor strategy. Chem Commun (Camb) 2019; 56:102-105. [PMID: 31793564 DOI: 10.1039/c9cc06972k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Showing anti-proliferation activity against MCF7 cells better than cisplatin, a platinum(ii) complex, [PtL(DMSO)Cl], was found to potently and selectively inhibit protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), a putative target for anticancer agents, suggesting a new possible anticancer strategy based on platinum drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caixia Yuan
- Institute of Molecular Science, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Molecular Engineering of the Education Ministry, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, P. R. China.
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Jang EJ, Kim DH, Lee B, Lee EK, Chung KW, Moon KM, Kim MJ, An HJ, Jeong JW, Kim YR, Yu BP, Chung HY. Activation of proinflammatory signaling by 4-hydroxynonenal-Src adducts in aged kidneys. Oncotarget 2018; 7:50864-50874. [PMID: 27472463 PMCID: PMC5239442 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.10854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 07/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In our previous study, reactive 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) was shown to activate Src (a non-receptor tyrosine kinase) by forming an adduct on binding with a specific residue of Src, leading to the activation of proinflammatory signaling pathways in cultured cells. However, to date, the deleterious roles of 4-HNE in inflammatory signaling activation in kidneys during aging have not been explored. The purpose of the present study was to document the mechanisms by which 4-HNE induces inflammation in the kidney during aging. Initial experiments revealed that activated nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) expression was caused by 4-HNE activation, which suppressed transcriptional activity in the aged kidney. Treatment of human umbilical vein endothelial cells with 4-HNE revealed that Src caused senescence via NF-κB activation. Furthermore, our immunohistochemistry data showed that 4-HNE-adducted Src significantly increased in aged kidney tissues. The data showed age-related upregulation of downstream signaling molecules such as mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs), activator protein-1 (AP-1), NF-κB, and COX-2 in a cell culture cell system. Taken together, the results of this study show that the formation of adducts between 4-HNE and Src activates inflammatory signaling pathways in the aged kidney, contributing to age-related nephropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Ji Jang
- Department of Pharmacy, Molecular Inflammation Research Center for Aging Intervention (MRCA), Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Hyun Kim
- Department of Pharmacy, Molecular Inflammation Research Center for Aging Intervention (MRCA), Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Bonggi Lee
- Department of Pharmacy, Molecular Inflammation Research Center for Aging Intervention (MRCA), Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Kyeong Lee
- Department of Pharmacy, Molecular Inflammation Research Center for Aging Intervention (MRCA), Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Wung Chung
- Department of Pharmacy, Molecular Inflammation Research Center for Aging Intervention (MRCA), Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoung Mi Moon
- Department of Pharmacy, Molecular Inflammation Research Center for Aging Intervention (MRCA), Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Jo Kim
- Department of Pharmacy, Molecular Inflammation Research Center for Aging Intervention (MRCA), Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Jin An
- Department of Pharmacy, Molecular Inflammation Research Center for Aging Intervention (MRCA), Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Won Jeong
- Department of Pharmacy, Molecular Inflammation Research Center for Aging Intervention (MRCA), Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Ye Ra Kim
- Department of Pharmacy, Molecular Inflammation Research Center for Aging Intervention (MRCA), Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung Pal Yu
- Department of Physiology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Hae Young Chung
- Department of Pharmacy, Molecular Inflammation Research Center for Aging Intervention (MRCA), Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Nègre-Salvayre A, Garoby-Salom S, Swiader A, Rouahi M, Pucelle M, Salvayre R. Proatherogenic effects of 4-hydroxynonenal. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 111:127-139. [PMID: 28040472 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) is a α,β-unsaturated hydroxyalkenal generated by peroxidation of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid. This reactive carbonyl compound exhibits a huge number of biological properties that result mainly from the formation of HNE-adducts on free amino groups and thiol groups in proteins. In the vascular system, HNE adduct accumulation progressively leads to cellular dysfunction and tissue damages that are involved in the progression of atherosclerosis and related diseases. HNE contributes to the atherogenicity of oxidized LDL, by forming HNE-apoB adducts that deviate the LDL metabolism to the scavenger receptor pathway of macrophagic cells, and lead to the formation of foam cells. HNE activates transcription factors (Nrf2, NF-kappaB) that (dys)regulate various cellular responses ranging from hormetic and survival signaling at very low concentrations, to inflammatory and apoptotic effects at higher concentrations. Among a variety of cellular targets, HNE can modify signaling proteins involved in atherosclerotic plaque remodeling, particularly growth factor receptors (PDGFR, EGFR), cell cycle proteins, mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum components or extracellular matrix proteins, which progressively alters smooth muscle cell proliferation, angiogenesis and induces apoptosis. HNE adducts accumulate in the lipidic necrotic core of advanced atherosclerotic lesions, and may locally contribute to macrophage and smooth muscle cell apoptosis, which may induce plaque destabilization and rupture, thereby increasing the risk of athero-thrombotic events.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Robert Salvayre
- Inserm UMR-1048, France; University of Toulouse, Faculty of Medicine, Biochemistry Dept, Toulouse, France; CHU Toulouse, Rangueil, Toulouse, France
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Blázquez-Castro A. Direct 1O 2 optical excitation: A tool for redox biology. Redox Biol 2017; 13:39-59. [PMID: 28570948 PMCID: PMC5451181 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2017.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Revised: 04/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular oxygen (O2) displays very interesting properties. Its first excited state, commonly known as singlet oxygen (1O2), is one of the so-called Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). It has been implicated in many redox processes in biological systems. For many decades its role has been that of a deleterious chemical species, although very positive clinical applications in the Photodynamic Therapy of cancer (PDT) have been reported. More recently, many ROS, and also 1O2, are in the spotlight because of their role in physiological signaling, like cell proliferation or tissue regeneration. However, there are methodological shortcomings to properly assess the role of 1O2 in redox biology with classical generation procedures. In this review the direct optical excitation of O2 to produce 1O2 will be introduced, in order to present its main advantages and drawbacks for biological studies. This photonic approach can provide with many interesting possibilities to understand and put to use ROS in redox signaling and in the biomedical field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso Blázquez-Castro
- Department of Physics of Materials, Faculty of Sciences, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain; Formerly at Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies (AIAS)/Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
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10
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DelloStritto DJ, Sinharoy P, Connell PJ, Fahmy JN, Cappelli HC, Thodeti CK, Geldenhuys WJ, Damron DS, Bratz IN. 4-Hydroxynonenal dependent alteration of TRPV1-mediated coronary microvascular signaling. Free Radic Biol Med 2016; 101:10-19. [PMID: 27682362 PMCID: PMC5490661 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrated previously that TRPV1-dependent regulation of coronary blood flow (CBF) is disrupted in diabetes. Further, we have shown that endothelial TRPV1 is differentially regulated, ultimately leading to the inactivation of TRPV1, when exposed to a prolonged pathophysiological oxidative environment. This environment has been shown to increase lipid peroxidation byproducts including 4-Hydroxynonenal (4-HNE). 4-HNE is notorious for producing protein post-translation modification (PTM) via reactions with the amino acids: cysteine, histidine and lysine. Thus, we sought to determine if 4-HNE mediated post-translational modification of TRPV1 could account for dysfunctional TRPV1-mediated signaling observed in diabetes. Our initial studies demonstrate 4-HNE infusion decreases TRPV1-dependent coronary blood flow in C57BKS/J (WT) mice. Further, we found that TRPV1-dependent vasorelaxation was suppressed after 4-HNE treatment in isolated mouse coronary arterioles. Moreover, we demonstrate 4-HNE significantly inhibited TRPV1 currents and Ca2+ entry utilizing patch-clamp electrophysiology and calcium imaging respectively. Using molecular modeling, we identified potential pore cysteines residues that, when mutated, could restore TRPV1 function in the presence of 4-HNE. Specifically, complete rescue of capsaicin-mediated activation of TRPV1 was obtained following mutation of pore Cysteine 621. Finally, His tag pull-down of TRPV1 in HEK cells treated with 4-HNE demonstrated a significant increase in 4-HNE binding to TRPV1, which was reduced in the TRPV1 C621G mutant. Taken together these data suggest that 4-HNE decreases TRPV1-mediated responses, at both the in vivo and in vitro levels and this dysfunction can be rescued via mutation of the pore Cysteine 621. Our results show the first evidence of an amino acid specific modification of TRPV1 by 4-HNE suggesting this 4-HNE-dependent modification of TRPV1 may contribute to microvascular dysfunction and tissue perfusion deficits characteristic of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J DelloStritto
- Department of Integrative Medical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 St. Rt. 44, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA.
| | - Pritam Sinharoy
- Department of Biological Sciences, Kent State University, 256 Cunningham Hall, Kent, OH 44242, USA.
| | - Patrick J Connell
- Department of Integrative Medical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 St. Rt. 44, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA.
| | - Joseph N Fahmy
- Department of Integrative Medical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 St. Rt. 44, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA.
| | - Holly C Cappelli
- Department of Integrative Medical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 St. Rt. 44, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, 256 Cunningham Hall, Kent, OH 44242, USA.
| | - Charles K Thodeti
- Department of Integrative Medical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 St. Rt. 44, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA.
| | - Werner J Geldenhuys
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, P.O. Box 9500, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
| | - Derek S Damron
- Department of Biological Sciences, Kent State University, 256 Cunningham Hall, Kent, OH 44242, USA.
| | - Ian N Bratz
- Department of Integrative Medical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 St. Rt. 44, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA.
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