Indispensable role of melatonin, a scavenger of reactive oxygen species (ROS), in the protective effect of Akkermansia muciniphila in cadmium-induced intestinal mucosal damage

Therapeutic Efficacy and Underlying Mechanisms of a Mannoglucan from Hirsutella sinensis Mycelium on Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Mice: Modulation of the Intestinal Barrier, Oxidative Stress and Gut Microbiota

Hirsutella sinensis (H. sinensis), a non-sexual form of the valuable Chinese medicinal herb, demonstrates various biological activities, such as immune modulation and antioxidative capabilities. Nonetheless, the effects of bioactive polysaccharides derived from H. sinensis on colitis have yet to be investigated. In our prior research, we extracted a mannoglucan (HSWP-1d) from H. sinensis and found that it attenuates TGF-β1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition. The present study investigated the protective effects of HSWP-1d against colitis induced by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in mice. The results demonstrate that HSWP-1d effectively ameliorates symptoms of colitis and preserves the intestinal barrier's stability by enhancing the expression of tight junction proteins. The administration of HSWP-1d results in a reduction in oxidative stress through the augmentation of antioxidative enzyme activities, concomitant with the suppression of oxidative product generation. Simultaneously, HSWP-1d reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines while elevating the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines, effectively mitigating the inflammatory response. Furthermore, HSWP-1d influences and alters short-chain-fatty-acid (SCFA) levels, thereby enhancing the intestinal microenvironment. In conclusion, HSWP-1d contributes to intestinal well-being and holds potential as both a therapeutic choice and a supplier of essential nutrients for the amelioration of colitis.

Melatonin as a multifunctional modulator: emerging insights into its role in health, reproductive efficiency, and productive performance in livestock

Melatonin, a pleiotropic hormone plays a vital role in enhancing livestock performance not only by regulating circadian rhythms but also by exhibiting antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and metabolic regulatory effects that collectively improve resilience, fertility, and productivity. Melatonin's synthesis is predominantly influenced by light exposure, with increased production in darkness; however, factors such as diet and health status further modulate its levels. By helping animals adapt to environmental stressors, melatonin boosts immune responses, mitigates chronic illnesses, and optimizes production efficiency. Its regulatory influence extends to the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, enhancing hormone secretion, synchronizing estrous cycles, and improving embryo viability. This results in improved reproductive outcomes through the protection of gametes, increased sperm motility, and enhanced oocyte quality, all of which benefit the fertilization process. Additionally, melatonin positively impacts productive performance, promoting muscle growth, development, and optimizing milk yield and composition through its interaction with metabolic and endocrine systems. As ongoing research continues to uncover its broader physiological effects, melatonin supplementation emerges as a promising approach to improving livestock welfare, productivity, and sustainability in modern animal husbandry.

Effects of ursolic acid on growth performance, serum biochemistry, antioxidant capacity, and intestinal health of broilers

Previous studies have shown that adding 450 mg/kg of ursolic acid (UA) can improve the growth performance of broilers. However, the specific mechanism is still unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to further explore whether UA promotes the growth of broilers by affecting the intestinal environment of broilers. We randomly divided 120 broilers with similar BW (46.53 ± 0.05 g) into two groups. Each group had six replicates, with 10 broilers per replicate. The broilers were fed either the corn-soybean meal-basal diet (CON group) or the corn-soybean meal-basal diet supplemented with 450 mg/kg UA (UA group). This study lasted 42 days. Adding UA increased the daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio of broilers (P < 0.05). The UA group exhibited reduced aspartate aminotransferase, total cholesterol, interleukin 6 and interleukin 1, and triacylglycerol levels, with increased interleukin 10 and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in serum (P < 0.05). The UA supplementation improved total antioxidant capacity, total superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase activity in serum (P < 0.05), and increased these levels in the jejunum (P < 0.05). It reduced malondialdehyde concentration in the jejunum and ileum (P < 0.05), improved jejunal morphology by increasing villus height and villus-to-crypt ratio, and decreased crypt depth (P < 0.05). Gene expression of zona occludens 1 and Claudin-1 was higher, while interleukin 6 was lower in the UA group (P < 0.05). Additionally, interleukin 10 gene expression in jejunal mucosa was higher (P < 0.05). Significant differences were observed in the abundance of Bacteroides, proteobacteria, and desulfurisation bacteria (P < 0.05), with higher Barnesiella and Clostridia_UCG-014, and lower Romboutsia in the UA group (P < 0.05). Barnesiella negatively correlated with interleukin 6, interleukin 1, and triacylglycerol, but positively correlated with interleukin 10 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, adding 450 mg/kg UA to broiler feed can improve serum and jejunal antioxidant capacity, reduce jejunal and ileal inflammation, improve jejunal morphology, and regulate caecal microbiota structure composition, promoting broiler growth.

Metal(loid)-gut microbiota interactions and microbiota-related protective strategies: A review

Human exposure to metal(loid)s has dramatically increased over the past five decades, which has triggered public concern worldwide. Recently, gut microbiota has been considered a target for metal(loid)s, and some literature has reviewed the interactions between gut microbiota and heavy metal(loid)s (HMs) with high toxicity. However, whether there is an interaction between gut microbiota and metal(loid)s with essential roles or some normal functions are far from clear to date. Importantly, in addition to traditional probiotics that have been clarified to alleviate the adverse effect of HMs on the body, some novel probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and postbiotics may also exhibit comparable or even better abilities of metal(loid) remediation. In this review, we mainly outline and discuss recent research findings on the metal(loid)-gut microbiota interactions and microbiota-related protective strategies.

Differential gene expression in the kidneys of SHR and WKY rats after intravenous administration of Akkermansia muciniphila-derived extracellular vesicles

Although Akkermansia muciniphila (Am) plays a beneficial role as a probiotic in the treatment of metabolic syndrome, the mechanisms remain elusive. We tested the hypothesis that Am extracellular vesicles (AmEVs) protect against hypertension through modulation of gene expression in the kidneys of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). Extracellular vesicles purified from anaerobically cultured Am (1.0 × 108 or 1.0 × 109 particles/kg) or vehicles were injected into the tail veins of Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKYs) and SHRs weekly for 4 weeks. Renal cortical tissues isolated from both rat strains were analyzed by trichrome stain and RT-qPCR. AmEVs protect against the development of hypertension in SHRs without a serious adverse reaction. AmEVs increased the expression of vasocontracting Agt and At1ar as well as vasodilating At2r, Mas1 and Nos2 in the kidneys of both strains. These results indicate that AmEVs have a protective effect against hypertension without a serious adverse reaction. Therefore, it is foreseen that AmEVs may be utilized as a novel therapeutic for the treatment of hypertension.

The Role of Akkermansia muciniphila on Improving Gut and Metabolic Health Modulation: A Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Mouse Model Studies

Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila) and its derivatives, including extracellular vesicles (EVs) and outer membrane proteins, are recognized for enhancing intestinal balance and metabolic health. However, the mechanisms of Akkermansia muciniphila's action and its effects on the microbiome are not well understood. In this study, we examined the influence of A. muciniphila and its derivatives on gastrointestinal (GI) and metabolic disorders through a meta-analysis of studies conducted on mouse models. A total of 39 eligible studies were identified through targeted searches on PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Embase until May 2024. A. muciniphila (alive or heat-killed) and its derivatives positively affected systemic and gut inflammation, liver enzyme level, glycemic response, and lipid profiles. The intervention increased the expression of tight-junction proteins in the gut, improving gut permeability in mouse models of GI and metabolic disorders. Regarding body weight, A. muciniphila and its derivatives prevented weight loss in animals with GI disorders while reducing body weight in mice with metabolic disorders. Sub-group analysis indicated that live bacteria had a more substantial effect on most analyzed biomarkers. Gut microbiome analysis using live A. muciniphila identified a co-occurrence cluster, including Desulfovibrio, Family XIII AD3011 group, and Candidatus Saccharimonas. Thus, enhancing the intestinal abundance of A. muciniphila and its gut microbial clusters may provide more robust health benefits for cardiometabolic, and age-related diseases compared with A. muciniphila alone. The mechanistic insight elucidated here will pave the way for further exploration and potential translational applications in human health.

Isoliquiritin counteracts cadmium-induced intestinal damage in mice through enhancing intestinal barrier function and inhibiting apoptosis

Cadmium (Cd), a crucial toxic environmental pollutant, can induce damage to many organs, especially the gastrointestinal tract. Isoliquiritin (ISO), a critical flavonoid glycoside compound isolated from Glycyrrhiza uralensis, has anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant and other pharmaceutical value. However, the potential roles of ISO in Cd-induced intestinal damage have not been reported yet. This study aimed to research the beneficial effects of ISO on Cd-induced intestinal damage and identify its underlying mechanisms. Our results showed that ISO reduced inflammation by suppressing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the activity of serum Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice with Cd exposure. In terms of mechanism, ISO administration protected the intestinal barrier function through increasing the expression of tight junction proteins and Muc2. Furthermore, ISO could significantly suppress Cd-induced intestinal apoptosis and activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Interestingly, inhibiting the activation of NLRP3 by nigericin completely blocking the effect of ISO on apoptosis. Most importantly, ISO markedly abrogated Cd-induced cell damage and NLRP3 inflammasome activation in vitro. Taken together, these findings suggest that ISO reduces Cd-induced intestinal damage by increasing the goblet cells, improving intestinal barrier, suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation and inhibiting apoptosis, which may offer a novel strategy against the toxic effects of heavy metals.

Azoramide ameliorates cadmium-induced cytotoxicity by inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum stress and suppressing oxidative stress

Background

Cadmium (Cd) is hazardous to human health because of its cytotoxicity and long biological half-life. Azoramide is a small molecular agent that targets the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and moderates the unfolded protein response. However, its role in Cd-induced cytotoxicity remains unclear. This study was performed to investigate the protective effect of azoramide against Cd-induced cytotoxicity and elucidate its underlying mechanisms.

Methods

Inductively coupled plasma‒mass spectrometry was used to measure Cd concentrations in each tissue of ICR male mice. The human proximal tubule epithelial cell line HK-2 and the human retinal pigment epithelial cell line ARPE-19 were used in the in vitro study. Cell apoptosis was determined by DAPI staining, JC-1 staining, and annexin V/propidium iodide double staining. Intracellular oxidative stress was detected by MitoSOX red staining, western blot, and quantitative real-time PCR. Moreover, ER stress signaling, MAPK cascades, and autophagy signaling were analyzed by western blot.

Results

The present data showed that Cd accumulated in various organs of ICR mice, and the concentrations of Cd in the studied organs, from high to low, were as follows: liver > kidney > testis > lung > spleen > eye. Our study demonstrated that azoramide inhibited ER stress by promoting BiP expression and suppressing the PERK-eIF2α-CHOP pathway. Additionally, we also found that azoramide significantly decreased ER stress-associated radical oxidative species production, attenuated p38 MAPK and JNK signaling, and inhibited autophagy, thus suppressing apoptosis in HK-2 and ARPE-19 cells.

Conclusion

Our study investigated the effect of azoramide on Cd-induced cytotoxicity and revealed that azoramide may be a therapeutic drug for Cd poisoning.

Exploring Metabolic and Gut Microbiome Responses to Paraquat Administration in Male Wistar Rats: Implications for Oxidative Stress

In this study, we examined the metabolic and gut microbiome responses to paraquat (PQ) in male Wistar rats, focusing on oxidative stress effects. Rats received a single intraperitoneal injection of PQ at 15 and 30 mg/kg, and various oxidative stress parameters (i.e., MDA, SOD, ROS, 8-isoprostanes) were assessed after three days. To explore the omic profile, GC-qTOF and UHPLC-qTOF were performed to assess the plasma metabolome; 1H-NMR was used to assess the urine metabolome; and shotgun metagenomics sequencing was performed to study the gut microbiome. Our results revealed reductions in body weight and tissue changes, particularly in the liver, were observed, suggesting a systemic effect of PQ. Elevated lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species levels in the liver and plasma indicated the induction of oxidative stress. Metabolic profiling revealed changes in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, accumulation of ketone body, and altered levels of key metabolites, such as 3-hydroxybutyric acid and serine, suggesting intricate links between energy metabolism and redox reactions. Plasma metabolomic analysis revealed alterations in mitochondrial metabolism, nicotinamide metabolism, and tryptophan degradation. The gut microbiome showed shifts, with higher PQ doses influencing microbial populations (e.g., Escherichia coli and Akkermansia muciniphila) and metagenomic functions (pyruvate metabolism, fermentation, nucleotide and amino acid biosynthesis). Overall, this study provides comprehensive insights into the complex interplay between PQ exposure, metabolic responses, and gut microbiome dynamics. These findings enhance our understanding of the mechanisms behind oxidative stress-induced metabolic alterations and underscore the connections between xenobiotic exposure, gut microbiota, and host metabolism.

Environmental cadmium exposure facilitates mammary tumorigenesis via reprogramming gut microbiota-mediated glutamine metabolism in MMTV-Erbb2 mice

Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal that has been widely reported to be linked to the onset and progression of breast cancer (BC). However, the mechanism of Cd-induced mammary tumorigenesis remains elusive. In our study, a transgenic mouse model that spontaneously develops tumors through overexpression of wild-type Erbb2 (MMTV-Erbb2) was constructed to investigate the effects of Cd exposure on BC tumorigenesis. The results showed that oral exposure to 3.6 mg/L Cd for 23 weeks dramatically accelerated tumor appearance and growth, increased Ki67 density and enhanced focal necrosis and neovascularization in the tumor tissue of MMTV-Erbb2 mice. Notably, Cd exposure enhanced glutamine (Gln) metabolism in tumor tissue, and 6-diazo-5-oxo-l-norleucine (DON), a Gln metabolism antagonist, inhibited Cd-induced breast carcinogenesis. Then our metagenomic sequencing and mass spectrometry-based metabolomics confirmed that Cd exposure disturbed gut microbiota homeostasis, especially Helicobacter and Campylobacter abundance remodeling, which altered the gut metabolic homeostasis of Gln. Moreover, intratumoral Gln metabolism profoundly increased under Cd-elevated gut permeability. Importantly, depletion of microbiota with an antibiotic cocktail (AbX) treatment led to a significant delay in the appearance of palpable tumors, inhibition of tumor growth, decrease in tumor weight, reduction in Ki67 expression and low-grade pathology in Cd-exposed MMTV-Erbb2 mice. Also, transplantation of Cd-modulated microbiota decreased tumor latency, accelerated tumor growth, increased tumor weight, upregulated Ki67 expression and exacerbated neovascularization as well as focal necrosis in MMTV-Erbb2 mice. In summary, Cd exposure induced gut microbiota dysbiosis, elevated gut permeability and increased intratumoral Gln metabolism, leading to the promotion of mammary tumorigenesis. This study provides novel insights into environmental Cd exposure-mediated carcinogenesis.

Assessing the Effects of Dietary Cadmium Exposure on the Gastrointestinal Tract of Beef Cattle via Microbiota and Transcriptome Profile

Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental pollutant, widely existing in soil, and can be absorbed and accumulated by plants. Hunan Province exhibits the worst cadmium contamination of farmland in China. Ruminants possess an abundant microbial population in the rumen, which enables them to tolerate various poisonous plants. To investigate whether the rumen microbiota could respond to Cd and mitigate the toxicity of Cd-accumulated maize to ruminants, 6-month-old cattle were fed with 85.82% (fresh basis) normal whole-plant maize silage diet (CON, n = 10) or Cd-accumulated whole-plant maize silage diet (CAM, n = 10) for 107 days. When compared to the CON cattle, CAM cattle showed significantly higher gain-to-feed ratio and an increased total bacterial population in the rumen, but a decreased total bacterial population in the colon. CAM cattle had higher relative abundance of Prevotella and Lachnospiraceae ND3007 group in the rumen, and Lachnospiraceae NK4A136 group and Clostridia vadinBB60 group in the colon. Notably, microbial correlations were enhanced in all segments of CAM cattle, especially Peptostreptococcaceae in the jejunum. Transcriptome analysis revealed down-regulation of several immune-related genes in the rumen of CAM cattle, and differentially expressed genes in the rumen were mostly involved in immune regulation. These findings indicated that feeding Cd-accumulated maize diet with a Cd concentration of 6.74 mg/kg dry matter (DM) could stimulate SCFA-related bacteria in the rumen, induce hormesis to promote weight gain, and improve energy utilization of cattle.

Akkermansia muciniphila: A potential target and pending issues for oncotherapy

In the wake of the development of metagenomic, metabolomic, and metatranscriptomic approaches, the intricate interactions between the host and various microbes are now being progressively understood. Numerous studies have demonstrated evident changes in gut microbiota during the process of a variety of diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, aging, and cancers. Notably, gut microbiota is viewed as a potential source of novel therapeutics. Currently, Next-generation probiotics (NGPs) are gaining popularity as therapeutic agents that alter the gut microbiota and affect cancer development. Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila), a representative commensal bacterium, has received substantial attention over the past decade as a promising NGP. The components and metabolites of A. muciniphila can directly or indirectly affect tumorigenesis, in particular through its effects on antitumor immunosurveillance, including the stimulation of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which also leads to better outcomes in a variety of situations, including the prevention and curation of cancers. In this article, we systematically summarize the role of A. muciniphila in tumorigenesis (involving gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal cancers) and in tumor therapy. In particular, we carefully discuss some critical scientific issues that need to be solved for the future using A. muciniphila as a representative beneficial bacterium in tumor treatment, which might provide bright clues and assistance for the application of drugs targeting A. muciniphila in clinical oncotherapy.

Zinc Foliar Application Mitigates Cadmium-Induced Growth Inhibition and Enhances Wheat Growth, Chlorophyll Contents, and Yield

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal that significantly threatens plants and the environment. Its toxicity in plants can result in various adverse effects, including reduced growth, altered metabolism, and cell damage. Cadmium can also interfere with nutrient uptake, particularly zinc (Zn), leading to Zn deficiency and further exacerbating Cd toxicity. On the other hand, foliar application of zinc might be a useful strategy to mitigate cadmium (Cd) toxicity in plants. Hence, a pot experiment was conducted with three replications. The wheat plants were treated with various concentrations of Zn as a foliar spray (control, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.5%) in Cd-spiked soil in pots. The results showed that foliar use of Zn at 0.4 or 0.5% resulted in higher plant height, grain yield, and dry matter yield than the control group. Using Zn as foliar spray enriched shoot and grain Zn content while reducing Cd content in the shoot and grain. The leaf's electrolyte leakage (EL) decreased by 15.4, 29.8, 40.7, and 45.9% in the Zn 0.1%, Zn 0.2%, Zn 0.4%, and Zn 0.5% treatments, respectively, compared to the control treatment. Regarding superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, Zn 0.5% treatment showed a decrease of 42.9% over control. Specifically, the Zn 0.1% showed a 27.2%, Zn 0.2% showed a 56.8%, Zn 0.4% showed a 91.1%, and Zn 0.5% showed a 133.7% increase in total chlorophyll content than control. Based on the results, it is recommended that 0.4% Zn solution may be used for foliar application for enhancing crop productivity and Zn concentration in plants under high Cd stress. Additionally, continued research on the mechanisms of cadmium uptake, transport, and detoxification in plants may lead to the identification of new targets for intervention.

Oral administration of Nigella sativa oil attenuates arsenic-induced redox imbalance, DNA damage, metabolic distress, and histopathological alterations in rat intestine

BACKGROUND

Exposure to arsenic, a widespread environmental toxin, produces multiple organ toxicity, including gastrointestinal toxicity. Nigella sativa (NS) has long been revered for its numerous health benefits under normal and pathological states. In view of this, the present study attempts to evaluate the protective efficacy of orally administered Nigella sativa oil (NSO) against arsenic-induced cytotoxic and genotoxic alterations in rat intestine and elucidate the underlying mechanism of its action.

METHODS

Rats were categorized into the control, NaAs, NSO, and NaAs+NSO groups. After pre-treatment of rats in the NaAs+NSO and NSO groups daily with NSO (2 ml/kg bwt, orally) for 14 days, NSO treatment was further continued for 30 days, with and without NaAs treatment (5 mg/kg bwt, orally), respectively. Various biochemical parameters, such as enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, carbohydrate metabolic and brush border membrane marker enzyme activities were evaluated in the mucosal homogenates of all the groups. Intestinal brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) were isolated, and the activities of membrane marker enzyme viz. ALP, GGTase, LAP, and sucrase were determined. Further, the effect on kinetic parameters viz K_M (Michaelis-Menten constant) and V_max of these enzymes was assessed. Integrity of enterocyte DNA was examined using the comet assay. Histopathology of the intestines was performed to evaluate the histoarchitectural alterations induced by chronic arsenic exposure and/or NSO supplementation. Arsenic accumulation in the intestine was studied by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS).

RESULTS

NaAs treatment caused substantial changes in the activities of brush border membrane (BBM), carbohydrate metabolism, and antioxidant defense enzymes in the intestinal mucosal homogenates. The isolated BBM vesicles (BBMV) also showed marked suppression in the marker enzyme activities. Severe DNA damage and mucosal arsenic accumulation were observed in rats treated with NaAs alone. In contrast, oral NSO supplementation significantly alleviated all the adverse alterations induced by NaAs treatment. Histopathological examination supported the biochemical findings.

CONCLUSION

NSO, by improving the antioxidant status and energy metabolism, could significantly alter the ability of the intestine to protect against free radical-mediated arsenic toxicity in intestine. Thus, NSO may have an excellent scope in managing gastrointestinal distress in arsenic intoxication.

Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, Gut Dysbiosis: What Can Polyphenols Do in Inflammatory Bowel Disease?

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a long-term, progressive, and recurrent intestinal inflammatory disorder. The pathogenic mechanisms of IBD are multifaceted and associated with oxidative stress, unbalanced gut microbiota, and aberrant immune response. Indeed, oxidative stress can affect the progression and development of IBD by regulating the homeostasis of the gut microbiota and immune response. Therefore, redox-targeted therapy is a promising treatment option for IBD. Recent evidence has verified that Chinese herbal medicine (CHM)-derived polyphenols, natural antioxidants, are able to maintain redox equilibrium in the intestinal tract to prevent abnormal gut microbiota and radical inflammatory responses. Here, we provide a comprehensive perspective for implementing natural antioxidants as potential IBD candidate medications. In addition, we demonstrate novel technologies and stratagems for promoting the antioxidative properties of CHM-derived polyphenols, including novel delivery systems, chemical modifications, and combination strategies.

Akkermansia muciniphila as a Next-Generation Probiotic in Modulating Human Metabolic Homeostasis and Disease Progression: A Role Mediated by Gut-Liver-Brain Axes?

Appreciation of the importance of Akkermansia muciniphila is growing, and it is becoming increasingly relevant to identify preventive and/or therapeutic solutions targeting gut-liver-brain axes for multiple diseases via Akkermansia muciniphila. In recent years, Akkermansia muciniphila and its components such as outer membrane proteins and extracellular vesicles have been known to ameliorate host metabolic health and intestinal homeostasis. However, the impacts of Akkermansia muciniphila on host health and disease are complex, as both potentially beneficial and adverse effects are mediated by Akkermansia muciniphila and its derivatives, and in some cases, these effects are dependent upon the host physiology microenvironment and the forms, genotypes, and strain sources of Akkermansia muciniphila. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the current knowledge of how Akkermansia muciniphila interacts with the host and influences host metabolic homeostasis and disease progression. Details of Akkermansia muciniphila will be discussed including its biological and genetic characteristics; biological functions including anti-obesity, anti-diabetes, anti-metabolic-syndrome, anti-inflammation, anti-aging, anti-neurodegenerative disease, and anti-cancer therapy functions; and strategies to elevate its abundance. Key events will be referred to in some specific disease states, and this knowledge should facilitate the identification of Akkermansia muciniphila-based probiotic therapy targeting multiple diseases via gut-liver-brain axes.