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Mao J, Lu J, Liu S, Liu Y, Lin Z, Xue Q. Genome-Wide Analysis of Family I84 Protease Inhibitor Genes in Three Bivalves Reveals Important Information About the Protein Family's Evolution. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 25:729-748. [PMID: 37578572 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-023-10236-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Family I84 serine protease inhibitors are believed to be mollusk specific proteins involved in host defense. The molecular evolution of the family, however, remains to be understood. In this study, the genes of Family I84 protease inhibitors in 3 bivalves, Crassostrea gigas, Crassostrea virginica and Tegillarca granosa, were analyzed at the genomic level. A total of 66 Family I84 genes (22 in C. gigas, 28 in C. virginica and 16 in T. granosa) were identified from the 3 species. They distributed unevenly in the genomes involving 4 chromosomes in C. gigas and 5 chromosomes in C. virginica and T. granosa and some genes were tandemly duplicated. Most genes had 3 exons with 12 genes having 4 exons and 1 gene having 2 exons. All genes but 1 from C. gigas and 1 from T. granosa encoded peptides with a signal sequence at the N-terminus, and the properties of the predicted mature molecules were similar. Four conserved motifs were identified in the 66 amino acid sequences. Collinear analysis revealed higher collinearity between the 2 oyster species in general genes and in Family I84 genes. Phylogenetic analysis of the 66 genes with those previously reported from 3 other bivalves and 1 gastropod showed that Family I84 protease inhibitor genes from the same species tended to be grouped together in terminal branches of the constructed Maximum likelihood tree, but most internal nodes were poorly supported by the bootstrap values. In addition, differences in expression patterns between the genes of a same species were observed in the developmental stages and tissues of C. gigas and T. granosa. Moreover, the co-expression of genes within Family I84 and Family I84 genes with non-Family I84 were also detected in C. gigas and T. granosa. These results suggested that Family I84 protease inhibitor genes evolved by active duplications and structural and functional diversifications after the speciation of related mollusks, and the diversified protease inhibitor family was likely multifunctional.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxia Mao
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, 315100, China
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry , Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, Zhejiang Province, 315604, China
| | - Jiali Lu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, 315100, China
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Sheng Liu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, 315100, China
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry , Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, Zhejiang Province, 315604, China
| | - Youli Liu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, 315100, China
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry , Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, Zhejiang Province, 315604, China
| | - Zhihua Lin
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, 315100, China
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry , Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, Zhejiang Province, 315604, China
| | - Qinggang Xue
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, College of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, 315100, China.
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry , Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, Zhejiang Province, 315604, China.
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Guo X, Puritz JB, Wang Z, Proestou D, Allen S, Small J, Verbyla K, Zhao H, Haggard J, Chriss N, Zeng D, Lundgren K, Allam B, Bushek D, Gomez-Chiarri M, Hare M, Hollenbeck C, La Peyre J, Liu M, Lotterhos KE, Plough L, Rawson P, Rikard S, Saillant E, Varney R, Wikfors G, Wilbur A. Development and Evaluation of High-Density SNP Arrays for the Eastern Oyster Crassostrea virginica. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 25:174-191. [PMID: 36622459 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-022-10191-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica is a major aquaculture species for the USA. The sustainable development of eastern oyster aquaculture depends upon the continued improvement of cultured stocks through advanced breeding technologies. The Eastern Oyster Breeding Consortium (EOBC) was formed to advance the genetics and breeding of the eastern oyster. To facilitate efficient genotyping needed for genomic studies and selection, the consortium developed two single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays for the eastern oyster: one screening array with 566K SNPs and one breeders' array with 66K SNPs. The 566K screening array was developed based on whole-genome resequencing data from 292 oysters from Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico populations; it contains 566,262 SNPs including 47K from protein-coding genes with a marker conversion rate of 48.34%. The 66K array was developed using best-performing SNPs from the screening array, which contained 65,893 oyster SNPs including 22,984 genic markers with a calling rate of 99.34%, a concordance rate of 99.81%, and a much-improved marker conversion rate of 92.04%. Null alleles attributable to large indels were found in 13.1% of the SNPs, suggesting that copy number variation is pervasive. Both arrays provided easy identification and separation of selected stocks from wild progenitor populations. The arrays contain 31 mitochondrial SNPs that allowed unambiguous identification of Gulf mitochondrial genotypes in some Atlantic populations. The arrays also contain 756 probes from 13 oyster and human pathogens for possible detection. Our results show that marker conversion rate is low in high polymorphism species and that the two-step process of array development can greatly improve array performance. The two arrays will advance genomic research and accelerate genetic improvement of the eastern oyster by delineating genetic architecture of production traits and enabling genomic selection. The arrays also may be used to monitor pedigree and inbreeding, identify selected stocks and their introgression into wild populations, and assess the success of oyster restoration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ximing Guo
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ, 08349, USA.
| | - Jonathan B Puritz
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, 120 Flagg Road, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA
| | - Zhenwei Wang
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ, 08349, USA
| | - Dina Proestou
- USDA ARS NCWMAC Shellfish Genetics Lab, 120 Flagg Rd., Kingston, RI, 02881, USA
| | - Standish Allen
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, 1375 Greate Rd., Gloucester Pt., VA, 23062, USA
| | - Jessica Small
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, 1375 Greate Rd., Gloucester Pt., VA, 23062, USA
| | | | - Honggang Zhao
- Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Jaime Haggard
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ, 08349, USA
| | - Noah Chriss
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ, 08349, USA
| | - Dan Zeng
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ, 08349, USA
| | - Kathryn Lundgren
- USDA ARS NCWMAC Shellfish Genetics Lab, 120 Flagg Rd., Kingston, RI, 02881, USA
| | - Bassem Allam
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - David Bushek
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ, 08349, USA
| | - Marta Gomez-Chiarri
- Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, 120 Flagg Road, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA
| | - Matthew Hare
- Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Christopher Hollenbeck
- Texas A&M University - Corpus Christi, Texas A&M AgriLife Research, 6300 Ocean Drive Unit 5892, Corpus Christi, TX, 78412, USA
| | - Jerome La Peyre
- School of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, 201 Animal and Food Sciences Laboratory Building, Forestry Lane, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA
| | - Ming Liu
- Patuxent Environmental and Aquatic Research Laboratory, Morgan State University, 10545 Mackall Road, Saint Leonard, MD, 20685, USA
| | - Katie E Lotterhos
- Northeastern Marine Science Center, 430 Nahant Rd, Nahant, MA, 01908, USA
| | - Louis Plough
- Horn Point Lab, University of Maryland, 5745 Lovers Lane, Cambridge, MD, 21613, USA
| | - Paul Rawson
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, 5751 Murray Hall, , Orono, ME, 04469, USA
| | - Scott Rikard
- School of Fisheries Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University Shellfish Laboratory, Auburn University, 150 Agassiz St., Dauphin Island, AL, 36528, USA
| | - Eric Saillant
- School of Ocean Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 103 McIlwain Drive, Ocean Springs, MS, 39564, USA
| | - Robin Varney
- Shellfish Research Hatchery, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K. Moss Ln., Wilmington, NC, 28409, USA
| | - Gary Wikfors
- Milford CT Laboratory, NOAA Fisheries, 212 Rogers Avenue, Milford, CT, 06460, USA
| | - Ami Wilbur
- Shellfish Research Hatchery, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K. Moss Ln., Wilmington, NC, 28409, USA
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What Can Genetics Do for the Control of Infectious Diseases in Aquaculture? Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12172176. [PMID: 36077896 PMCID: PMC9454762 DOI: 10.3390/ani12172176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Infectious diseases place an economic burden on aquaculture and a limitation to its growth. This state-of-the-art review describes the application of genetics and genomics as novel tools to control infectious disease in aquaculture. Abstract Infectious diseases place an economic burden on aquaculture and a limitation to its growth. An innovative approach to mitigate their impact on production is breeding for disease resistance: selection for domestication, family-based selection, marker-assisted selection, and more recently, genomic selection. Advances in genetics and genomics approaches to the control of infectious diseases are key to increasing aquaculture efficiency, profitability, and sustainability and to reducing its environmental footprint. Interaction and co-evolution between a host and pathogen can, however, turn breeding to boost infectious disease resistance into a potential driver of pathogenic change. Parallel molecular characterization of the pathogen and its virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes is therefore essential to understand pathogen evolution over time in response to host immunity, and to apply appropriate mitigation strategies.
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Yao S, Li L, Guan X, He Y, Jouaux A, Xu F, Guo X, Zhang G, Zhang L. Pooled resequencing of larvae and adults reveals genomic variations associated with Ostreid herpesvirus 1 resistance in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Front Immunol 2022; 13:928628. [PMID: 36059443 PMCID: PMC9437489 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.928628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The Ostreid herpesvirus 1 (OsHV-1) is a lethal pathogen of the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), an important aquaculture species. To understand the genetic architecture of the defense against the pathogen, we studied genomic variations associated with herpesvirus-caused mortalities by pooled whole-genome resequencing of before and after-mortality larval samples as well as dead and surviving adults from a viral challenge. Analysis of the resequencing data identified 5,271 SNPs and 1,883 genomic regions covering 3,111 genes in larvae, and 18,692 SNPs and 28,314 regions covering 4,863 genes in adults that were significantly associated with herpesvirus-caused mortalities. Only 1,653 of the implicated genes were shared by larvae and adults, suggesting that the antiviral response or resistance in larvae and adults involves different sets of genes or differentiated members of expanded gene families. Combined analyses with previous transcriptomic data from challenge experiments revealed that transcription of many mortality-associated genes was also significantly upregulated by herpesvirus infection confirming their importance in antiviral response. Key immune response genes especially those encoding antiviral receptors such as TLRs and RLRs displayed strong association between variation in regulatory region and herpesvirus-caused mortality, suggesting they may confer resistance through transcriptional modulation. These results point to previously undescribed genetic mechanisms for disease resistance at different developmental stages and provide candidate polymorphisms and genes that are valuable for understanding antiviral immune responses and breeding for herpesvirus resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Yao
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- College of Life Sciences, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Li Li
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, College of Marine Science, Beijing, China
| | - Xudong Guan
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Yan He
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Aude Jouaux
- UMR BOREA, “Biologie des Organismes et Ecosystèmes Aquatiques”, MNHN, UPMC, UCBN, CNRS-7208, IRD, Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, Esplanade de la Paix, Caen, France
| | - Fei Xu
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Ximing Guo
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, Port Norris, NJ, United States
- *Correspondence: Ximing Guo, ; Guofan Zhang, ; Linlin Zhang,
| | - Guofan Zhang
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, College of Marine Science, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Ximing Guo, ; Guofan Zhang, ; Linlin Zhang,
| | - Linlin Zhang
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, College of Marine Science, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Ximing Guo, ; Guofan Zhang, ; Linlin Zhang,
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Liu S, Liu Y, Lu J, Mao J, Lin Z, Xue Q. Genome Wide Identification and Expression Profiling Indicate Expansion of Family I84 Protease Inhibitor via Gene Tandem Duplication and Divergence in Razor Clam Sinonovacula constricta. Front Immunol 2022; 13:907274. [PMID: 35720365 PMCID: PMC9198434 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.907274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Family I84 protease inhibitors represent a novel family in the MEROPS peptidase database and are likely unique for molluscan host defense. Two Family I84 members, scSI-1 and scSI-2, were reported from the razor clam Sinonovacula constricta in a previous research. In the present study, 12 additional genes, named scSI-3 to scSI-14, were identified via genome wide sequence analyses. Among them, 10 genes were predicted to have a signal sequence, but one (scSI-7) was not. Besides, one sequence (scSI-14) was likely to encode a prematurely terminated peptide. The predicted mature peptides shared characteristics including 12 conserved cysteine residues, isoelectric points of 4.98 to 6.11, and molecular weights of 7.1 to 9.3 kDa with previously reported family members. Four motifs were characterized in 13 predicted mature peptides (with exception of scSI-14), which shared two to four conserved cysteine residues, are possibly to form two functional domain comprised 6 cysteine residues, respectively. At genomic level, all the 14 razor clam Family I84 genes were organized into 3 exons and 2 introns; 13 of them clustered in 3 regions of 100 kb on 3 separate chromosomes, suggesting tandem duplications of related genes. The promoter region of all the 14 genes was predicted to share some transcription factor binding sites, in particular those responsive to pathological and physiological stimuli, but no shared motifs were identified. Analyses also revealed differences in expression patterns among the genes. One gene in a tandem duplicated gene pairs usually showed a higher expression level than the other whereas non-tandem duplicated genes exhibited a higher degree of correlation in expression level. In addition, 8 of the 14 genes demonstrated higher level of expression in Vibrio tolerant clams than in non-tolerant clams following challenges with Vibrio parahaemolyticus. These results generated important information about the evolution of Family I84 protease inhibitors in S. constricta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Liu
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China.,Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China
| | - Youli Liu
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China.,Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China
| | - Jiali Lu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China
| | - Jinxia Mao
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China
| | - Zhihua Lin
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China.,Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China
| | - Qinggang Xue
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China.,Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, China
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Witkop EM, Wikfors GH, Proestou DA, Lundgren KM, Sullivan M, Gomez-Chiarri M. Perkinsus marinus suppresses in vitro eastern oyster apoptosis via IAP-dependent and caspase-independent pathways involving TNFR, NF-kB, and oxidative pathway crosstalk. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 129:104339. [PMID: 34998862 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2022.104339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus causes Dermo disease in eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica, and can suppress apoptosis of infected hemocytes using incompletely understood mechanisms. This study challenged hemocytes in vitro with P. marinus for 1 h in the presence or absence of caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK or Inhibitor of Apoptosis protein (IAP) inhibitor GDC-0152. Hemocytes exposure to P. marinus significantly reduced granulocyte apoptosis, and pre-incubation with Z-VAD-FMK did not affect P. marinus-induced apoptosis suppression. Hemocyte pre-incubation with GDC-0152 prior to P. marinus challenge further reduced apoptosis of granulocytes with engulfed parasite, but not mitochondrial permeabilization. This suggests P. marinus-induced apoptosis suppression may be caspase-independent, affect an IAP-involved pathway, and occur downstream of mitochondrial permeabilization. P. marinus challenge stimulated hemocyte differential expression of oxidation-reduction, TNFR, and NF-kB pathways. WGCNA analysis of P. marinus expression in response to hemocyte exposure revealed correlated protease, kinase, and hydrolase expression that could contribute to P. marinus-induced apoptosis suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M Witkop
- University of Rhode Island, Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, 120 Flagg Rd, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Gary H Wikfors
- NOAA Northeast Fisheries Science Center Milford Laboratory, 212 Rogers Ave, Milford, CT, USA
| | - Dina A Proestou
- USDA ARS NEA NCWMAC Shellfish Genetics Program, 120 Flagg Rd, Kingston, RI, USA
| | | | - Mary Sullivan
- USDA ARS NEA NCWMAC Shellfish Genetics Program, 120 Flagg Rd, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Marta Gomez-Chiarri
- University of Rhode Island, Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, 120 Flagg Rd, Kingston, RI, USA.
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Chan J, Wang L, Li L, Mu K, Bushek D, Xu Y, Guo X, Zhang G, Zhang L. Transcriptomic Response to Perkinsus marinus in Two Crassostrea Oysters Reveals Evolutionary Dynamics of Host-Parasite Interactions. Front Genet 2021; 12:795706. [PMID: 34925467 PMCID: PMC8678459 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.795706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious disease outbreaks are causing widespread declines of marine invertebrates including corals, sea stars, shrimps, and molluscs. Dermo is a lethal infectious disease of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica caused by the protist Perkinsus marinus. The Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas is resistant to Dermo due to differences in the host-parasite interaction that is not well understood. We compared transcriptomic responses to P. marinus challenge in the two oysters at early and late infection stages. Dynamic and orchestrated regulation of large sets of innate immune response genes were observed in both species with remarkably similar patterns for most orthologs, although responses in C. virginica were stronger, suggesting strong or over-reacting immune response could be a cause of host mortality. Between the two species, several key immune response gene families differed in their expansion, sequence variation and/or transcriptional response to P. marinus, reflecting evolutionary divergence in host-parasite interaction. Of note, significant upregulation of inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs) was observed in resistant C. gigas but not in susceptible C. virginica, suggesting upregulation of IAPs is an active defense mechanism, not a passive response orchestrated by P. marinus. Compared with C. gigas, C. virginica exhibited greater expansion of toll-like receptors (TLRs) and positive selection in P. marinus responsive TLRs. The C1q domain containing proteins (C1qDCs) with the galactose-binding lectin domain that is involved in P. marinus recognition, were only present and significantly upregulated in C. virginica. These results point to previously undescribed differences in host defense genes between the two oyster species that may account for the difference in susceptibility, providing an expanded portrait of the evolutionary dynamics of host-parasite interaction in lophotrochozoans that lack adaptive immunity. Our findings suggest that C. virginica and P. marinus have a history of coevolution and the recent outbreaks may be due to increased virulence of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiulin Chan
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Lu Wang
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, College of Marine Science, Beijing, China
| | - Li Li
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, College of Marine Science, Beijing, China
| | - Kang Mu
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, College of Marine Science, Beijing, China
| | - David Bushek
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, Port Norris, NJ, United States
| | - Yue Xu
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Ximing Guo
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, Port Norris, NJ, United States
| | - Guofan Zhang
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, College of Marine Science, Beijing, China
| | - Linlin Zhang
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology and Center of Deep Sea Research, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, College of Marine Science, Beijing, China
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8
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Lu J, Liu S, Ruan Z, Ye J, Wu Q, Wang S, Lin Z, Xue Q. Family I84 protease inhibitors likely constitute a Mollusca-specific protein family functioning in host defense. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2021; 145:89-100. [PMID: 34137379 DOI: 10.3354/dao03602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Protease inhibitors are proteins or small polypeptides functioning in numerous biological processes in all organisms. The I84 family of protease inhibitors in the MEROPS database represents a novel protease inhibitor family that has been reported in 2 bivalves, Crassostrea virginica and Sinonovacula constricta, and is believed to play a role in host defense. In the present study, 7 new members of Family I84 were identified in 2 bivalves, Meretrix meretrix and Mytilus galloprovincialis, and 1 gastropod, Haliotis discus hannai, at the mRNA level via cDNA cloning. The expression patterns of the newly identified genes varied in response to salinity stresses and pathogen-associated molecular pattern stimulations, suggesting their involvement in the host defense of related species. Additionally, analyses of sequence data in public databases did not reveal any Family I84 protease inhibitor molecules in non-molluscan animals. The results indicated that Family I84 protease inhibitors are likely mollusk specific, constituting a unique host defense mechanism in molluscan species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiali Lu
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Fisheries Science Education, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, PR China
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Sun G, Dong Y, Sun C, Yao H, Lin Z. Vital Role of Glutamate Dehydrogenase Gene in Ammonia Detoxification and the Association Between its SNPs and Ammonia Tolerance in Sinonovacula constricta. Front Physiol 2021; 12:664804. [PMID: 34025453 PMCID: PMC8131826 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.664804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence has revealed accumulated ammonia will cause adverse effects on the growth, reproduction, and survival of aquatic animals. As a marine benthic mollusk, the razor clam Sinonovacula constricta shows better growth and survival under high ammonia nitrogen environment. However, little is known about its adaptation mechanisms to high ammonia stress in an integrated mariculture system. In this study, we analyzed the association between the polymorphism of glutamate dehydrogenase gene (GDH), a key gene involved in ammonia nitrogen detoxification, and ammonia tolerance. The results showed that 26 and 22 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of GDH in S. constricta (denoted as Sc-GDH) were identified from two geographical populations, respectively. Among them, two SNPs (c.323T > C and c.620C > T) exhibited a significant and strong association with ammonia tolerance, suggesting that Sc-GDH gene could serve as a potential genetic marker for molecular marker–assisted selection to increase survival rate and production of S. constricta. To observe the histological morphology and explore the histocellular localization of Sc-GDH, by paraffin section and hematoxylin–eosin staining, the gills were divided into gill filament (contains columnar and flattened cells) and gill cilia, whereas hepatopancreas was made up of individual hepatocytes. The results of immunohistochemistry indicated that the columnar cells of gill filaments and the endothelial cells of hepatocytes were the major sites for Sc-GDH secretion. Under ammonia stress (180 mg/L), the expression levels of Sc-GDH were extremely significantly downregulated at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h (P < 0.01) after RNA interference. Thus, we can speculate that Sc-GDH gene may play an important role in the defense process against ammonia stress. Overall, these findings laid a foundation for further research on the adaptive mechanisms to ammonia–nitrogen tolerance for S. constricta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaigai Sun
- College of Fisheries, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Yinghui Dong
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resources of Zhejiang, College of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China
| | - Changsen Sun
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, China
| | - Hanhan Yao
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resources of Zhejiang, College of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China
| | - Zhihua Lin
- Ninghai Institute of Mariculture Breeding and Seed Industry, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ninghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resources of Zhejiang, College of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, China
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10
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Liu Y, Li L, Qi H, Que H, Wang W, Zhang G. Regulation Between HSF1 Isoforms and HSPs Contributes to the Variation in Thermal Tolerance Between Two Oyster Congeners. Front Genet 2020; 11:581725. [PMID: 33193707 PMCID: PMC7652795 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2020.581725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) plays an important role in regulating heat shock, which can activate heat shock proteins (HSPs). HSPs can protect organisms from thermal stress. Oysters in the intertidal zone can tolerate thermal stress. The Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas gigas) and Fujian oyster (C. gigas angulata)—allopatric subspecies with distinct thermal tolerances—make good study specimens for analyzing and comparing thermal stress regulation. We cloned and compared HSF1 isoforms, which is highly expressed under heat shock conditions in the two subspecies. The results revealed that two isoforms (HSF1a and HSF1d) respond to heat shock in both Pacific and Fujian oysters, and different heat shock conditions led to various combinations of isoforms. Subcellular localization showed that isoforms gathered in the nucleus when exposed to heat shock. The co-immunoprecipitation revealed that HSF1d can be a dimer. In addition, we selected HSPs that are expressed under the heat shock response, according to the RNA-seq and proteomic analyses. For the HSPs, we analyzed the coding part and the promoter sequences. The result showed that the domains of HSPs are conserved in two subspecies, but the promoters are significantly different. The Dual-Luciferase assay showed that the induced expression isoform HSF1d had the highest activity in C. gigas gigas, while the constitutively-expressed HSF1a was most active in C. gigas angulata. In addition, variation in the level of HSP promoters appeared to be correlated with gene expression. We argue that this gene is regulated based on the different expression levels between the two subspecies’ responses to heat shock. In summary, various stress conditions can yield different HSF1 isoforms and respond to heat shock in both oyster subspecies. Differences in how the isoforms and promoter are activated may contribute to their differential expressions. Overall, the results comparing C. gigas gigas and C. gigas angulata suggest that these isoforms have a regulatory relationship under heat shock, providing valuable information on the thermal tolerance mechanism in these commercially important oyster species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youli Liu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Li Li
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Ecological Mariculture, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Li Li,
| | - Haigang Qi
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Ecological Mariculture, Qingdao, China
| | - Huayong Que
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Ecological Mariculture, Qingdao, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Ecological Mariculture, Qingdao, China
| | - Guofan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Ecological Mariculture, Qingdao, China
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11
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Proestou DA, Sullivan ME. Variation in global transcriptomic response to Perkinsus marinus infection among eastern oyster families highlights potential mechanisms of disease resistance. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 96:141-151. [PMID: 31809834 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Dermo disease, caused by the protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus, negatively impacts wild and cultured Eastern oyster populations, yet our knowledge of the mechanistic bases for parasite pathogenicity and the Eastern oyster's response to it is limited. To better understand host responses to the parasite and identify molecular mechanisms underlying disease-resistance phenotypes, we experimentally challenged two families exhibiting divergent Dermo-resistance phenotypes with the parasite, generated global expression profiles using RNAseq and identified differentially expressed transcripts between control and challenged oysters from each family at multiple time points post-parasite injection. The susceptible and resistant families exhibited strikingly different transcriptomic responses to the parasite over a 28-day time period. The resistant family exhibited a strong, focused, early response to P. marinus infection, where many significantly upregulated transcripts were associated with the biological processes "regulation of proteolysis" and "oxidation-reduction process." P. marinus virulence factors are mainly comprised of proteases that facilitate parasite invasion and weaken host humoral defenses, thus host upregulation of transcripts associated with negative regulation of proteolysis is consistent with a Dermo-resistant phenotype. In contrast, the susceptible family mounted a very weak, disorganized, initial response to the parasite. Few transcripts were differentially expressed between control and injected oysters, and no functional enrichment was detected among them. At the final 28 d time point 2450 differentially expressed transcripts were identified and were associated with either "G-protein coupled receptor activity" (upregulated) or "microtubule-based process" (downregulated). A handful of protease inhibitors were differentially expressed between control and injected susceptible oysters, but this function was not enriched in the susceptible data set. The differential expression patterns observed in this study provide valuable insight into the functional basis of Dermo resistance and suggest that the timing of expression is just as important as the transcripts being expressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina A Proestou
- USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Cold Water Marine Aquaculture Center, 469 CBLS, 120 Flagg Road, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA.
| | - Mary E Sullivan
- USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Cold Water Marine Aquaculture Center, 469 CBLS, 120 Flagg Road, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA; University of Rhode Island, Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Science, 460 CBLS, 120 Flagg Road, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA.
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12
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Zhang K, Liu Y, Liu X, Peng M, Liu J, Zhang Q. A functional polymorphism in the promoter of RhoB is associated with susceptibility to Vibrio anguillarum in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 93:269-277. [PMID: 31306762 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
As an isoform of Rho family GTPases, RhoB plays a pivotal role in cytoskeletal organization, cell proliferation, apoptosis and immune response. However, the regulatory mechanisms of RhoB expression in aquatic animals are still unknown. In the present study, we first construct Vibrio anguillarum infection model in S. maximus, including susceptible and resistant individuals. Then the temporal expression of RhoB was detected after V. anguillarum challenge using qRT-PCR and found that RhoB transcripts were significantly induced in the liver, gill and blood despite of differential expression levels and responsive time points. In addition, the mRNA levels of RhoB in resistant individuals were significantly higher than in susceptible ones. The length of 2083 bp sequences of RhoB promoter was cloned and characterized. Moreover, DNA methylation of the RhoB promoter was measured by bisulfite sequencing (BSP) and hypo-methylated was detected in the CpG islands. Three SNPs (-1590, -1575 and -1449) and two haplotypes in the promoter region of RhoB were identified to be associated with V. anguillarum resistance in turbot by association analysis in group 17-R and 17-S. Deletion analysis indicated that these SNPs could negatively mediate the activity of RhoB promoter. Site-directed mutagenesis and qRT-PCR of individuals with different genotypes demonstrated that -1575 T/A polymorphism affected promoter activity. Further study showed that this mutation altered the binding site of the transcription factor CREB. Co-transfection of SmCREB and RhoB promoter was performed in HEK293T cells which confirmed the -1575 allelic differences on transcriptional activity, with the susceptibility allele showing reduced activity. Taken together, our findings implicate that losing of binding of CREB to SmRhoB promoter due to -1575T/A polymorphisms enhances SmRhoB expression in resistant turbot, which provide insights into the effect of SmRhoB expression in response to V. anguillarum infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Yuxiang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Xiumei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China; College of Life Sciences, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, China
| | - Meiting Peng
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Jinxiang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China; Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Quanqi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China; Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China.
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13
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Vera M, Pardo BG, Cao A, Vilas R, Fernández C, Blanco A, Gutierrez AP, Bean TP, Houston RD, Villalba A, Martínez P. Signatures of selection for bonamiosis resistance in European flat oyster ( Ostrea edulis): New genomic tools for breeding programs and management of natural resources. Evol Appl 2019; 12:1781-1796. [PMID: 31548857 PMCID: PMC6752124 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) is a highly appreciated mollusk with an important aquaculture production throughout the 20th century, in addition to playing an important role on coastal ecosystems. Overexploitation of natural beds, habitat degradation, introduction of non-native species, and epidemic outbreaks have severely affected this important resource, particularly, the protozoan parasite Bonamia ostreae, which is the main concern affecting its production and conservation. In order to identify genomic regions and markers potentially associated with bonamiosis resistance, six oyster beds distributed throughout the European Atlantic coast were sampled. Three of them have been exposed to this parasite since the early 1980s and showed some degree of innate resistance (long-term affected group, LTA), while the other three were free of B. ostreae at least until sampling date (naïve group, NV). A total of 14,065 SNPs were analyzed, including 37 markers from candidate genes and 14,028 from a medium-density SNP array. Gene diversity was similar between LTA and NV groups suggesting no genetic erosion due to long-term exposure to the parasite, and three population clusters were detected using the whole dataset. Tests for divergent selection between NV and LTA groups detected the presence of a very consistent set of 22 markers, located within a putative single genomic region, which suggests the presence of a major quantitative trait locus associated with B. ostreae resistance. Moreover, 324 outlier loci associated with factors other than bonamiosis were identified allowing fully discrimination of all the oyster beds. A practical tool which included the 84 highest discriminative markers for tracing O. edulis populations was developed and tested with empirical data. Results reported herein could assist the production of stocks with improved resistance to bonamiosis and facilitate the management of oyster beds for recovery production and ecosystem services provided by this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Vera
- Department of Zoology, Genetics and Physical Anthropology, ACUIGEN group, Faculty of VeterinaryUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
- Instituto de AcuiculturaUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
| | - Belén G. Pardo
- Department of Zoology, Genetics and Physical Anthropology, ACUIGEN group, Faculty of VeterinaryUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
- Instituto de AcuiculturaUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
| | - Asunción Cao
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA)Consellería do Mar, Xunta de GaliciaPontevedraSpain
| | - Román Vilas
- Department of Zoology, Genetics and Physical Anthropology, ACUIGEN group, Faculty of VeterinaryUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
- Instituto de AcuiculturaUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
| | - Carlos Fernández
- Department of Zoology, Genetics and Physical Anthropology, ACUIGEN group, Faculty of VeterinaryUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
- Instituto de AcuiculturaUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
| | - Andrés Blanco
- Department of Zoology, Genetics and Physical Anthropology, ACUIGEN group, Faculty of VeterinaryUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
- Instituto de AcuiculturaUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
| | - Alejandro P. Gutierrez
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary StudiesUniversity of EdinburghMidlothianUK
| | - Tim P. Bean
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary StudiesUniversity of EdinburghMidlothianUK
| | - Ross D. Houston
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary StudiesUniversity of EdinburghMidlothianUK
| | - Antonio Villalba
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA)Consellería do Mar, Xunta de GaliciaPontevedraSpain
- Departamento de Ciencias de la VidaUniversidad de AlcaláMadridSpain
- Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology (PIE)University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU)Basque CountrySpain
| | - Paulino Martínez
- Department of Zoology, Genetics and Physical Anthropology, ACUIGEN group, Faculty of VeterinaryUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
- Instituto de AcuiculturaUniversidade de Santiago de CompostelaLugoSpain
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14
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Xue Q. Pathogen proteases and host protease inhibitors in molluscan infectious diseases. J Invertebr Pathol 2019; 166:107214. [PMID: 31348922 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2019.107214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The development of infectious diseases represents an outcome of dynamic interactions between the disease-producing agent's pathogenicity and the host's self-defense mechanism. Proteases secreted by pathogenic microorganisms and protease inhibitors produced by host species play an important role in the process. This review aimed at summarizing major findings in research on pathogen proteases and host protease inhibitors that had been proposed to be related to the development of mollusk diseases. Metalloproteases and serine proteases respectively belonging to Family M4 and Family S8 of the MEROPS system are among the most studied proteases that may function as virulence factors in mollusk pathogens. On the other hand, a mollusk-specific family (Family I84) of novel serine protease inhibitors and homologues of the tissue inhibitor of metalloprotease have been studied for their potential in the molluscan host defense. In addition, research at the genomic and transcriptomic levels showed that more proteases of pathogens and protease inhibitor of hosts are likely involved in mollusk disease processes. Therefore, the pathological significance of interactions between pathogen proteases and host protease inhibitors in the development of molluscan infectious diseases deserves more research efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinggang Xue
- Zhejiang Key Lab of Aquatic Germplasm Resources, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315100, China; Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266071, China.
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15
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La Peyre JF, Casas SM, Richards M, Xu W, Xue Q. Testing plasma subtilisin inhibitory activity as a selective marker for dermo resistance in eastern oysters. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2019; 133:127-139. [PMID: 31019137 DOI: 10.3354/dao03344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Recent findings have suggested that eastern oyster plasma possesses inhibitors of the protease subtilisin, which play a role in the host defense against Perkinsus marinus, a protist parasite causing dermo. A study was conducted to determine whether plasma subtilisin inhibitory activity (PSIA) could be used as a selective marker in breeding programs for dermo resistance. Eastern oysters Crassostrea virginica from 2 wild Louisiana populations shown to differ in dermo resistance were collected and their PSIA was measured. Three groups of oysters were established to spawn from each population. One group was composed of randomly sampled oysters (i.e. unselected) and the other 2 groups were composed of oysters with the highest or lowest PSIA. After spawning, progenies were deployed in October 2014 in a dermo endemic area and sampled quarterly for 2 yr to measure their mortality, growth, P. marinus infection intensity, condition index, PSIA, and the gene expression of 3 subtilisin inhibitors (cvSI-1, cvSI-2, and cvSI-3). Oyster cumulative mortalities of the progenies of all groups increased both years from April to October, concomitant with increasing P. marinus infection intensities. Mortalities and P. marinus infection intensities differed markedly between the 2 populations, but differences between the unselected and selected groups of each population were limited. Measurements of PSIA and cvSI-1, cvSI-2, and cvSI-3 gene expressions between the progenies of all groups showed few differences. CvSI-1 gene expression in surviving oysters of the most susceptible population was increased at the end of the study, adding additional support to the potential role of cvSI-1 defense against P. marinus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome F La Peyre
- School of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, USA
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16
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Long-term affected flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) haemocytes show differential gene expression profiles from naïve oysters in response to Bonamia ostreae. Genomics 2018; 110:390-398. [PMID: 29678683 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2018.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) production has suffered a severe decline due to bonamiosis. The responsible parasite enters in oyster haemocytes, causing an acute inflammatory response frequently leading to death. We used an immune-enriched oligo-microarray to understand the haemocyte response to Bonamia ostreae by comparing expression profiles between naïve (NS) and long-term affected (AS) populations along a time series (1 d, 30 d, 90 d). AS showed a much higher response just after challenge, which might be indicative of selection for resistance. No regulated genes were detected at 30 d in both populations while a notable reactivation was observed at 90 d, suggesting parasite latency during infection. Genes related to extracellular matrix and protease inhibitors, up-regulated in AS, and those related to histones, down-regulated in NS, might play an important role along the infection. Twenty-four candidate genes related to resistance should be further validated for selection programs aimed to control bonamiosis.
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17
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Wang X, Xue Q, Mao X, Dong Y, Li C, Lin Z. Two I84 family protease inhibitors from Chinese razor clams Sinonovacula constricta expressed in response to environmental challenges. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 75:149-157. [PMID: 29427715 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Protease inhibitors play critical roles in numerous biological processes including host defense in all multicellular organisms. Eighty three evolutionary families of protease inhibitors are currently accommodated in the MEROPS database and the I84 family currently consists of 3 novel serine protease inhibitors from the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. In this study, we identified 2 new I84 family members from the Chinese razor clam Sinonovacula constricta, scSI-1 and scSI-2, using cDNA cloning and sequencing. The scSI-1 cDNA consisted of 494 bp with a 282 bp ORF encoding a 93-amino acid polypeptide that was predicted to have a 19-amino acid signal peptide and a 74-residue mature protein with a calculated molecular mass of 8248.5 Da. The scSI-2 cDNA was 490 bp long with a 273 bp ORF encoding a 90-amino acid polypeptide that was predicted to have an 18-amino acid signal peptide and a 72-residue nature protein with a calculated molecular mass of 7528.4 Da. ScSI-1 and scSI-2 shared high sequence similarity with the 3 known members of I84 family and both expressed primarily in the clam digestive glands. Protease inhibitory activity in the clam plasma also exhibited the signature kinetic characteristics of the I84 members from the oyster. In addition, levels of scSI-1 and scSI-2 gene expression in digestive glands and the protease inhibitory activity in plasma elevated significantly in clams challenged by bacterial injections and Vibrio harveyi was more effective than Staphylococcus epidermidis in inducing the gene expression and plasma protease inhibitory activity. Moreover, drastic changes of salinity and temperature also caused significant changes in the gene expression and plasma activity. These results indicated that scSI-1 and scSI-2 represented 2 new members of the I84 family and they likely play a role in clam host defense against infections and in reactions against physiochemical stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiarong Wang
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315010, China; Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource of Zhejiang, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315100, China
| | - Qinggang Xue
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266071, China; Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource of Zhejiang, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315100, China.
| | - Xiaowei Mao
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315010, China; Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource of Zhejiang, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315100, China
| | - Yinghui Dong
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource of Zhejiang, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315100, China
| | - Chenhua Li
- School of Marine Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315010, China
| | - Zhihua Lin
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resource of Zhejiang, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315100, China.
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18
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Liu J, Zhou N, Fu R, Cao D, Si Y, Li A, Zhao H, Zhang Q, Yu H. The polymorphism of chicken-type lysozyme gene in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) and its association with resistance/susceptibility to Listonella anguillarum. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 66:43-49. [PMID: 28476668 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2017.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Lysozyme is a crucially spread hydrolase in organisms that can defend against bacterial infection in innate immunity. In this study, we successfully sequenced the coding region of chicken-type lysozyme gene (PoLysC) in Paralichthys olivaceus and identified nine single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). We then amplified the 2500 bp promoter region of lysozyme and identified the eight sites of polymorphisms. All SNPs were genotyped between susceptible and resistance groups after Listonella anguillarum challenge. One of these SNP sites in the codon of PoLysC was genotyped and determined to be a significant marker by analyzing its distribution in the susceptible and resistant groups. As a nonsynonymous mutation, the frequency of 140G/C genotype in the resistant group was higher (67.74%) than that in the susceptible group (32.26%). The linkage between SNP140 and polymorphisms in the promoter region was also studied. Results revealed that the frequency of haplotype CC-536/CC-1200/GG140 in the resistance group was significantly higher than that in the susceptible group. The quantitative expression of lysozyme gene in the resistant group was also higher than that in the susceptible group. This finding indicated that the linkage between polymorphism -536 and -1200 sites in promoter and SNP140 in codon sequence was associated with the resistance of P. olivaceus to L. anguillarum. All these results suggest that the mutations in promoter and coding region were related to changes in PoLysC for resisting L. anguillarum. The haplotype CC-536/CC-1200/GG140 was a potential marker and can thus be applied to selective breeding for the disease resistance of P. olivaceus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxiang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, 266003, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Nayu Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, 266003, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Ruixue Fu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, 266003, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Dandan Cao
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, 266003, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Yu Si
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, 266003, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Aoyun Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, 266003, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Haitao Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, 266003, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Quanqi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, 266003, Qingdao, Shandong, China; Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, 266237, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Haiyang Yu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, 266003, Qingdao, Shandong, China; Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, 266237, Qingdao, Shandong, China.
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Xue Q, Beguel JP, Gauthier J, La Peyre J. Identification of cvSI-3 and evidence for the wide distribution and active evolution of the I84 family of protease inhibitors in mollusks. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 62:332-340. [PMID: 28159692 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2017.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/28/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Protease inhibitors are an extremely diverse group of proteins that control the proteolytic activities of proteases and play a crucial role in biological processes including host defenses. The I84 family of protease inhibitors in the MEROPS database currently consists of cvSI-1 and cvSI-2, two novel serine protease inhibitors purified and characterized from the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica plasma and believed to play a role in host defense and disease resistance. In the present study, a third member of I84 family, named cvSI-3, was identified from C. virginica by cDNA cloning and sequencing. The full cvSI-3 cDNA was composed of 342 bp including a 255 bp open reading frame (ORF) that encodes an 84-amino acid peptide. The mature cvSI-3 molecule was predicted to have 68 amino acid residues after removal of a 16-amino acid signal peptide, with a calculated molecular mass of 7724.5 Da and a theoretical isoelectric point (pI) of 6.28. CvSI-3 amino acid sequence shared 41% identity with cvSI-2 and 37% identity with cvSI-1, which included 12 conserved cysteines. Quantitative real-time PCR determined that cvSI-3 gene expressed primarily in oyster digestive glands. Real-time PCR also detected that cvSI-1, cvSI-2 and cvSI-3 expression levels in digestive glands varied significantly, with cvSI-2 showing the highest expression level and cvSI-3 the lowest. Additionally, a significant correlation was detected between cvSI-2 and cvSI-3 mRNAs levels. Searches into sequence databases using cvSI-1, cvSI-2 and cvSI-3 as queries retrieved ESTs suggesting the possible existence of at least 9 more I84 family members in eastern oysters and of I84 family protease inhibitors in various bivalve and gastropod species. Moreover, orthologs of all C. virginica I84 family members or potential member genes were found to be present in the C. gigas genome, and their distributions among species provided important information about the evolution of the I84 family of protease inhibitors. It appears that the I84 family of protease inhibitors is widely distributed and actively evolving in the Phylum Mollusca.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinggang Xue
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Aquatic Germplasm Resources and College of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Wanli University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315100, China; Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266071, China; School of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA.
| | - Jean-Phillipe Beguel
- School of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Julie Gauthier
- Loyola University, Department of Biological Sciences, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Jerome La Peyre
- School of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
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20
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Abdelrahman H, ElHady M, Alcivar-Warren A, Allen S, Al-Tobasei R, Bao L, Beck B, Blackburn H, Bosworth B, Buchanan J, Chappell J, Daniels W, Dong S, Dunham R, Durland E, Elaswad A, Gomez-Chiarri M, Gosh K, Guo X, Hackett P, Hanson T, Hedgecock D, Howard T, Holland L, Jackson M, Jin Y, Khalil K, Kocher T, Leeds T, Li N, Lindsey L, Liu S, Liu Z, Martin K, Novriadi R, Odin R, Palti Y, Peatman E, Proestou D, Qin G, Reading B, Rexroad C, Roberts S, Salem M, Severin A, Shi H, Shoemaker C, Stiles S, Tan S, Tang KFJ, Thongda W, Tiersch T, Tomasso J, Prabowo WT, Vallejo R, van der Steen H, Vo K, Waldbieser G, Wang H, Wang X, Xiang J, Yang Y, Yant R, Yuan Z, Zeng Q, Zhou T. Aquaculture genomics, genetics and breeding in the United States: current status, challenges, and priorities for future research. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:191. [PMID: 28219347 PMCID: PMC5319170 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-3557-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Advancing the production efficiency and profitability of aquaculture is dependent upon the ability to utilize a diverse array of genetic resources. The ultimate goals of aquaculture genomics, genetics and breeding research are to enhance aquaculture production efficiency, sustainability, product quality, and profitability in support of the commercial sector and for the benefit of consumers. In order to achieve these goals, it is important to understand the genomic structure and organization of aquaculture species, and their genomic and phenomic variations, as well as the genetic basis of traits and their interrelationships. In addition, it is also important to understand the mechanisms of regulation and evolutionary conservation at the levels of genome, transcriptome, proteome, epigenome, and systems biology. With genomic information and information between the genomes and phenomes, technologies for marker/causal mutation-assisted selection, genome selection, and genome editing can be developed for applications in aquaculture. A set of genomic tools and resources must be made available including reference genome sequences and their annotations (including coding and non-coding regulatory elements), genome-wide polymorphic markers, efficient genotyping platforms, high-density and high-resolution linkage maps, and transcriptome resources including non-coding transcripts. Genomic and genetic control of important performance and production traits, such as disease resistance, feed conversion efficiency, growth rate, processing yield, behaviour, reproductive characteristics, and tolerance to environmental stressors like low dissolved oxygen, high or low water temperature and salinity, must be understood. QTL need to be identified, validated across strains, lines and populations, and their mechanisms of control understood. Causal gene(s) need to be identified. Genetic and epigenetic regulation of important aquaculture traits need to be determined, and technologies for marker-assisted selection, causal gene/mutation-assisted selection, genome selection, and genome editing using CRISPR and other technologies must be developed, demonstrated with applicability, and application to aquaculture industries.Major progress has been made in aquaculture genomics for dozens of fish and shellfish species including the development of genetic linkage maps, physical maps, microarrays, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays, transcriptome databases and various stages of genome reference sequences. This paper provides a general review of the current status, challenges and future research needs of aquaculture genomics, genetics, and breeding, with a focus on major aquaculture species in the United States: catfish, rainbow trout, Atlantic salmon, tilapia, striped bass, oysters, and shrimp. While the overall research priorities and the practical goals are similar across various aquaculture species, the current status in each species should dictate the next priority areas within the species. This paper is an output of the USDA Workshop for Aquaculture Genomics, Genetics, and Breeding held in late March 2016 in Auburn, Alabama, with participants from all parts of the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisham Abdelrahman
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Mohamed ElHady
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | | | - Standish Allen
- Aquaculture Genetics & Breeding Technology Center, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Rafet Al-Tobasei
- Department of Biology, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132, USA
| | - Lisui Bao
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Ben Beck
- Aquatic Animal Health Research Unit, USDA-ARS, 990 Wire Road, Auburn, AL, 36832, USA
| | - Harvey Blackburn
- USDA-ARS-NL Wheat & Corn Collections at a Glance GRP, National Animal Germplasm Program, 1111 S. Mason St., Fort Collins, CO, 80521-4500, USA
| | - Brian Bosworth
- USDA-ARS/CGRU, 141 Experimental Station Road, Stoneville, MS, 38701, USA
| | - John Buchanan
- Center for Aquaculture Technologies, 8395 Camino Santa Fe, Suite E, San Diego, CA, 92121, USA
| | - Jesse Chappell
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - William Daniels
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Sheng Dong
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Rex Dunham
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Evan Durland
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Ahmed Elaswad
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Marta Gomez-Chiarri
- Department of Fisheries, Animal & Veterinary Science, 134 Woodward Hall, 9 East Alumni Avenue, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA
| | - Kamal Gosh
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Ximing Guo
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ, 08349, USA
| | - Perry Hackett
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, 5-108 MCB, 420 Washington Avenue SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Terry Hanson
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Dennis Hedgecock
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089-0371, USA
| | - Tiffany Howard
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Leigh Holland
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Molly Jackson
- Taylor Shellfish Farms, 130 SE Lynch RD, Shelton, WA, 98584, USA
| | - Yulin Jin
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Karim Khalil
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Thomas Kocher
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, 2132 Biosciences Research Building, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Tim Leeds
- National Center for Cool and Cold Water Aquaculture, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Kearneysville, WV, 25430, USA
| | - Ning Li
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Lauren Lindsey
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Shikai Liu
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Zhanjiang Liu
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA.
| | - Kyle Martin
- Troutlodge, 27090 Us Highway 12, Naches, WA, 98937, USA
| | - Romi Novriadi
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Ramjie Odin
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Yniv Palti
- National Center for Cool and Cold Water Aquaculture, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Kearneysville, WV, 25430, USA
| | - Eric Peatman
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Dina Proestou
- USDA ARS NEA NCWMAC Shellfish Genetics at the University Rhode Island, 469 CBLS, 120 Flagg Road, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA
| | - Guyu Qin
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Benjamin Reading
- Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695-7617, USA
| | - Caird Rexroad
- USDA ARS Office of National Programs, George Washington Carver Center Room 4-2106, 5601 Sunnyside Avenue, Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA
| | - Steven Roberts
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98105, USA
| | - Mohamed Salem
- Department of Biology, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132, USA
| | - Andrew Severin
- Genome Informatics Facility, Office of Biotechnology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Huitong Shi
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Craig Shoemaker
- Aquatic Animal Health Research Unit, USDA-ARS, 990 Wire Road, Auburn, AL, 36832, USA
| | - Sheila Stiles
- USDOC/NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, NEFSC, Milford Laboratory, Milford, Connectcut, 06460, USA
| | - Suxu Tan
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Kathy F J Tang
- School of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Wilawan Thongda
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Terrence Tiersch
- Aquatic Germplasm and Genetic Resources Center, School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA, 70820, USA
| | - Joseph Tomasso
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Wendy Tri Prabowo
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Roger Vallejo
- National Center for Cool and Cold Water Aquaculture, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Kearneysville, WV, 25430, USA
| | | | - Khoi Vo
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Geoff Waldbieser
- USDA-ARS/CGRU, 141 Experimental Station Road, Stoneville, MS, 38701, USA
| | - Hanping Wang
- Aquaculture Genetics and Breeding Laboratory, The Ohio State University South Centers, Piketon, OH, 45661, USA
| | - Xiaozhu Wang
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Jianhai Xiang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Yujia Yang
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Roger Yant
- Hybrid Catfish Company, 1233 Montgomery Drive, Inverness, MS, 38753, USA
| | - Zihao Yuan
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Qifan Zeng
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Tao Zhou
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
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Guo X, Ford SE. Infectious diseases of marine molluscs and host responses as revealed by genomic tools. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 371:rstb.2015.0206. [PMID: 26880838 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
More and more infectious diseases affect marine molluscs. Some diseases have impacted commercial species including MSX and Dermo of the eastern oyster, QPX of hard clams, withering syndrome of abalone and ostreid herpesvirus 1 (OsHV-1) infections of many molluscs. Although the exact transmission mechanisms are not well understood, human activities and associated environmental changes often correlate with increased disease prevalence. For instance, hatcheries and large-scale aquaculture create high host densities, which, along with increasing ocean temperature, might have contributed to OsHV-1 epizootics in scallops and oysters. A key to understanding linkages between the environment and disease is to understand how the environment affects the host immune system. Although we might be tempted to downplay the role of immunity in invertebrates, recent advances in genomics have provided insights into host and parasite genomes and revealed surprisingly sophisticated innate immune systems in molluscs. All major innate immune pathways are found in molluscs with many immune receptors, regulators and effectors expanded. The expanded gene families provide great diversity and complexity in innate immune response, which may be key to mollusc's defence against diverse pathogens in the absence of adaptive immunity. Further advances in host and parasite genomics should improve our understanding of genetic variation in parasite virulence and host disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ximing Guo
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ 08349, USA
| | - Susan E Ford
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, 6959 Miller Avenue, Port Norris, NJ 08349, USA
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Pardo BG, Álvarez-Dios JA, Cao A, Ramilo A, Gómez-Tato A, Planas JV, Villalba A, Martínez P. Construction of an Ostrea edulis database from genomic and expressed sequence tags (ESTs) obtained from Bonamia ostreae infected haemocytes: Development of an immune-enriched oligo-microarray. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 59:331-344. [PMID: 27815201 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2016.10.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/30/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The flat oyster, Ostrea edulis, is one of the main farmed oysters, not only in Europe but also in the United States and Canada. Bonamiosis due to the parasite Bonamia ostreae has been associated with high mortality episodes in this species. This parasite is an intracellular protozoan that infects haemocytes, the main cells involved in oyster defence. Due to the economical and ecological importance of flat oyster, genomic data are badly needed for genetic improvement of the species, but they are still very scarce. The objective of this study is to develop a sequence database, OedulisDB, with new genomic and transcriptomic resources, providing new data and convenient tools to improve our knowledge of the oyster's immune mechanisms. Transcriptomic and genomic sequences were obtained using 454 pyrosequencing and compiled into an O. edulis database, OedulisDB, consisting of two sets of 10,318 and 7159 unique sequences that represent the oyster's genome (WG) and de novo haemocyte transcriptome (HT), respectively. The flat oyster transcriptome was obtained from two strains (naïve and tolerant) challenged with B. ostreae, and from their corresponding non-challenged controls. Approximately 78.5% of 5619 HT unique sequences were successfully annotated by Blast search using public databases. A total of 984 sequences were identified as being related to immune response and several key immune genes were identified for the first time in flat oyster. Additionally, transcriptome information was used to design and validate the first oligo-microarray in flat oyster enriched with immune sequences from haemocytes. Our transcriptomic and genomic sequencing and subsequent annotation have largely increased the scarce resources available for this economically important species and have enabled us to develop an OedulisDB database and accompanying tools for gene expression analysis. This study represents the first attempt to characterize in depth the O. edulis haemocyte transcriptome in response to B. ostreae through massively sequencing and has aided to improve our knowledge of the immune mechanisms of flat oyster. The validated oligo-microarray and the establishment of a reference transcriptome will be useful for large-scale gene expression studies in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belén G Pardo
- Departamento de Zoología, Genética y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus de Lugo, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - José Antonio Álvarez-Dios
- Departamento de Matemática Aplicada, Facultad de Matemáticas, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15781 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Asunción Cao
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas, Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain.
| | - Andrea Ramilo
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas, Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain.
| | - Antonio Gómez-Tato
- Departamento de Matemáticas, Facultad de Matemáticas, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Josep V Planas
- Departament de Fisiologia i Immunologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona and Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), 08007, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Antonio Villalba
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas, Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain; Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad de Alcalá, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Spain.
| | - Paulino Martínez
- Departamento de Zoología, Genética y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus de Lugo, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
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Wang K, del Castillo C, Corre E, Pales Espinosa E, Allam B. Clam focal and systemic immune responses to QPX infection revealed by RNA-seq technology. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:146. [PMID: 26921237 PMCID: PMC4769524 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2493-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria is an important seafood species widely exploited along the eastern coasts of the United States and play a crucial role in coastal ecology and economy. Severe hard clam mortalities have been associated with the protistan parasite QPX (Quahog Parasite Unknown). QPX infection establishes in pallial organs with the lesions typically characterized as nodules, which represent inflammatory masses formed by hemocyte infiltration and encapsulation of parasites. QPX infection is known to induce host changes on both the whole-organism level and at specific lesion areas, which imply systemic and focal defense responses, respectively. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying these alterations. Results RNA-seq was performed using Illumina Hiseq 2000 (641 Million 100 bp reads) to characterize M. mercenaria focal and systemic immune responses to QPX. Transcripts were assembled and the expression levels were compared between nodule and healthy tissues from infected clams, and between these and tissues from healthy clams. De novo assembly reconstructed a consensus transcriptome of 62,980 sequences that was functionally-annotated. A total of 3,131 transcripts were identified as differentially expressed in different tissues. Results allowed the identification of host immune factors implicated in the systemic and focal responses against QPX and unraveled the pathways involved in parasite neutralization. Among transcripts significantly modulated upon host-pathogen interactions, those involved in non-self recognition, signal transduction and defense response were over-represented. Alterations in pathways regulating hemocyte focal adhesion, migration and apoptosis were also demonstrated. Conclusions Our study is the first attempt to thoroughly characterize M. mercenaria transcriptome and identify molecular features associated with QPX infection. It is also one of the first studies contrasting focal and systemic responses to infections in invertebrates using high-throughput sequencing. Results identified the molecular signatures of clam systemic and focal defense responses, to collectively mediate immune processes such as hemocyte recruitment and local inflammation. These investigations improve our understanding of bivalve immunity and provide molecular targets for probing the biological bases of clam resistance towards QPX. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-2493-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kailai Wang
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-5000, USA.
| | - Carmelo del Castillo
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-5000, USA.
| | - Erwan Corre
- Analyses and Bioinformatics for Marine Science, Station Biologique de Roscoff, 29688, Roscoff Cedex, France.
| | - Emmanuelle Pales Espinosa
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-5000, USA.
| | - Bassem Allam
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-5000, USA.
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Zhang G, Li L, Meng J, Qi H, Qu T, Xu F, Zhang L. Molecular Basis for Adaptation of Oysters to Stressful Marine Intertidal Environments. Annu Rev Anim Biosci 2015; 4:357-81. [PMID: 26515272 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-animal-022114-110903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Oysters that occupy estuarine and intertidal habitats have well-developed stress tolerance mechanisms to tolerate harsh and dynamically changing environments. In this review, we summarize common pathways and genomic features in oyster that are responsive to environmental stressors such as temperature, salinity, hypoxia, air exposure, pathogens, and anthropogenic pollutions. We first introduce the key genes involved in several pathways, which constitute the molecular basis for adaptation to stress. We use genome analysis to highlight the strong cellular homeostasis system, a unique adaptive characteristic of oysters. Next, we provide a global view of features of the oyster genome that contribute to stress adaptation, including oyster-specific gene expansion, highly inducible expression, and functional divergence. Finally, we review the consequences of interactions between oysters and the environment from ecological and evolutionary perspectives by discussing mass mortality and adaptive divergence among populations and related species of the genus Crassostrea. We conclude with prospects for future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guofan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, 266071 China;
| | - Li Li
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, 266071 China;
| | - Jie Meng
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, 266071 China;
| | - Haigang Qi
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, 266071 China;
| | - Tao Qu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, 266071 China;
| | - Fei Xu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, 266071 China;
| | - Linlin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong, 266071 China;
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25
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Guo X, He Y, Zhang L, Lelong C, Jouaux A. Immune and stress responses in oysters with insights on adaptation. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 46:107-119. [PMID: 25989624 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2015.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2015] [Revised: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 05/09/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Oysters are representative bivalve molluscs that are widely distributed in world oceans. As successful colonizers of estuaries and intertidal zones, oysters are remarkably resilient against harsh environmental conditions including wide fluctuations in temperature and salinity as well as prolonged air exposure. Oysters have no adaptive immunity but can thrive in microbe-rich estuaries as filter-feeders. These unique adaptations make oysters interesting models to study the evolution of host-defense systems. Recent advances in genomic studies including sequencing of the oyster genome have provided insights into oyster's immune and stress responses underlying their amazing resilience. Studies show that the oyster genomes are highly polymorphic and complex, which may be key to their resilience. The oyster genome has a large gene repertoire that is enriched for immune and stress response genes. Thousands of genes are involved in oyster's immune and stress responses, through complex interactions, with many gene families expanded showing high sequence, structural and functional diversity. The high diversity of immune receptors and effectors may provide oysters with enhanced specificity in immune recognition and response to cope with diverse pathogens in the absence of adaptive immunity. Some members of expanded immune gene families have diverged to function at different temperatures and salinities or assumed new roles in abiotic stress response. Most canonical innate immunity pathways are conserved in oysters and supported by a large number of diverse and often novel genes. The great diversity in immune and stress response genes exhibited by expanded gene families as well as high sequence and structural polymorphisms may be central to oyster's adaptation to highly stressful and widely changing environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ximing Guo
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory, Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, Port Norris, NJ 08345, USA.
| | - Yan He
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Linlin Zhang
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Christophe Lelong
- UMR BOREA, "Biologie des Organismes et Ecosystèmes Aquatiques", MNHN, UPMC, UCBN, CNRS-7208, IRD, Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, Esplanade de la Paix, 14032 Caen, France; Centre de Référence sur l'Huître (CRH), Université de Caen Basse Normandie, Esplanade de la Paix, 14032 Caen, France
| | - Aude Jouaux
- UMR BOREA, "Biologie des Organismes et Ecosystèmes Aquatiques", MNHN, UPMC, UCBN, CNRS-7208, IRD, Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, Esplanade de la Paix, 14032 Caen, France; Centre de Référence sur l'Huître (CRH), Université de Caen Basse Normandie, Esplanade de la Paix, 14032 Caen, France
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Bathige SDNK, Umasuthan N, Godahewa GI, Whang I, Kim C, Park HC, Lee J. Three novel clade B serine protease inhibitors from disk abalone, Haliotis discus discus: Molecular perspectives and responses to immune challenges and tissue injury. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 45:334-341. [PMID: 25917971 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2015.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2015] [Revised: 04/07/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Serine protease inhibitors (SERPINs) control cellular protease activity in order to maintain cellular homeostasis. The immune and inflammatory responses of invertebrate clade B SERPINs have not been widely reported. In the present study, three proteins with high similarity to clade B SERPINs, referred to as AbSERPIN-1, AbSERPIN-2 and AbSERPIN-3, were identified from disk abalone (Haliotis discus discus). While AbSERPIN-1 (399 aa) was of a typical size for this protein class, AbSERPIN-2 (506 aa) and AbSERPIN-3 (532 aa) were relatively larger. Bioinformatic analysis revealed the characteristic SERPIN domain in each AbSERPIN. In addition, the N-terminal region of both AbSERPIN-2 and AbSERPIN-3 contained a predicted low complexity region (LCR) and a signal peptide, suggesting that these proteins are secretory proteins and are, thus, novel peptides. Tertiary structural models of the AbSERPINs highlighted their structural and functional conservation. Ubiquitous expression of AbSERPIN transcripts was evaluated by quantitative real time PCR (qPCR) analysis in seven tissue types. AbSERPIN-1, AbSERPIN-2, and AbSERPIN-3 transcript levels were highest in mantle, hemocytes, and muscles, respectively. Temporal expression analysis revealed that AbSERPINs were significantly (P < 0.05) elevated in hemocytes during the early/middle stages following the injection of a bacterial pathogen (Vibrio parahaemolyticus or Listeria monocytogenes) or an immuno-stimulant (lipopolysaccharide). Moreover, mantle tissue injury led to significant changes in the temporal expression of AbSERPIN mRNA. Specifically, transcription of AbSERPIN-1 and AbSERPIN-3 was considerably up-regulated, while expression of AbSERPIN-2 was suppressed. These results suggest a potential role of AbSERPINs in response to pathogen invasion and tissue injury in disk abalone.
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Affiliation(s)
- S D N K Bathige
- Department of Marine Life Sciences, School of Marine Biomedical Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 690-756, Republic of Korea; Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Special Self-Governing Province 690-756, Republic of Korea
| | - Navaneethaiyer Umasuthan
- Department of Marine Life Sciences, School of Marine Biomedical Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 690-756, Republic of Korea; Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Special Self-Governing Province 690-756, Republic of Korea
| | - G I Godahewa
- Department of Marine Life Sciences, School of Marine Biomedical Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 690-756, Republic of Korea; Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Special Self-Governing Province 690-756, Republic of Korea
| | - Ilson Whang
- Department of Marine Life Sciences, School of Marine Biomedical Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 690-756, Republic of Korea; Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Special Self-Governing Province 690-756, Republic of Korea
| | - Chul Kim
- Informatics Development & Management Group, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, 1672 Yuseongdae-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-811, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae-Chul Park
- Graduate School of Medicine, Korea University, Ansan, Gyeonggido 425-707, Republic of Korea
| | - Jehee Lee
- Department of Marine Life Sciences, School of Marine Biomedical Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province 690-756, Republic of Korea; Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Special Self-Governing Province 690-756, Republic of Korea.
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The use of -omic tools in the study of disease processes in marine bivalve mollusks. J Invertebr Pathol 2015; 131:137-54. [PMID: 26021714 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2015.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2015] [Revised: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Our understanding of disease processes and host-pathogen interactions in model species has benefited greatly from the application of medium and high-throughput genomic, metagenomic, epigenomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic analyses. The rate at which new, low-cost, high-throughput -omic technologies are being developed has also led to an expansion in the number of studies aimed at gaining a better understanding of disease processes in bivalves. This review provides a catalogue of the genetic and -omic tools available for bivalve species and examples of how -omics has contributed to the advancement of marine bivalve disease research, with a special focus in the areas of immunity, bivalve-pathogen interactions, mechanisms of disease resistance and pathogen virulence, and disease diagnosis. The analysis of bivalve genomes and transcriptomes has revealed that many immune and stress-related gene families are expanded in the bivalve taxa examined thus far. In addition, the analysis of proteomes confirms that responses to infection are influenced by epigenetic, post-transcriptional, and post-translational modifications. The few studies performed in bivalves show that epigenetic modifications are non-random, suggesting a role for epigenetics in regulating the interactions between bivalves and their environments. Despite the progress -omic tools have enabled in the field of marine bivalve disease processes, there is much more work to be done. To date, only three bivalve genomes have been sequenced completely, with assembly status at different levels of completion. Transcriptome datasets are relatively easy and inexpensive to generate, but their interpretation will benefit greatly from high quality genome assemblies and improved data analysis pipelines. Finally, metagenomic, epigenomic, proteomic, and metabolomic studies focused on bivalve disease processes are currently limited but their expansion should be facilitated as more transcriptome datasets and complete genome sequences become available for marine bivalve species.
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Romero A, Forn-Cuní G, Moreira R, Milan M, Bargelloni L, Figueras A, Novoa B. An immune-enriched oligo-microarray analysis of gene expression in Manila clam (Venerupis philippinarum) haemocytes after a Perkinsus olseni challenge. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 43:275-286. [PMID: 25555813 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2014.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Parasites of the genus Perkinsus cause high mortality and economic losses in bivalves commonly produced in global aquaculture. Although the immune responses of oysters and clams naturally infected with Perkinsus marinus or Perkinsus olseni have been extensively studied, there is not much information on host response at the early stages of infection. In this study, we analysed how P. olseni influences the gene expression profiles of haemocytes from the Manila clam (Venerupis philippinarum) using temporal experimental infections and an immune-enriched microarray. We identified an early phase of infection that was characterised by no mortality and by the increased expression of genes associated with pathogen recognition, production of nitrogen radicals and antimicrobial activity. Cellular processes such as inhibition of serine proteases and proliferation were also involved in this early response. This phase was followed by an intermediate stage, when the pathogen was most likely multiplying and infecting new areas of the body, and animals began to die. In this stage, many genes related to cell movement were over-expressed. Thirty days after infection metabolic pathway genes were the most affected. Apoptosis appears to be important during pathogenesis. Our results provide novel observations of the broader innate immune response triggered by P. olseni at different infection stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Romero
- Institute of Marine Research, IIM - CSIC, Eduardo Cabello, 6, 362018 Vigo, Spain
| | - Gabriel Forn-Cuní
- Institute of Marine Research, IIM - CSIC, Eduardo Cabello, 6, 362018 Vigo, Spain
| | - Rebeca Moreira
- Institute of Marine Research, IIM - CSIC, Eduardo Cabello, 6, 362018 Vigo, Spain
| | - Massimo Milan
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science (BCA), University of Padova, Viale dell'Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Luca Bargelloni
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science (BCA), University of Padova, Viale dell'Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Antonio Figueras
- Institute of Marine Research, IIM - CSIC, Eduardo Cabello, 6, 362018 Vigo, Spain
| | - Beatriz Novoa
- Institute of Marine Research, IIM - CSIC, Eduardo Cabello, 6, 362018 Vigo, Spain.
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Gutiérrez-Rivera JN, Arcos-Ortega GF, Luna-González A, Rodríguez-Jaramillo MC, Arechiga-Carvajal ET, Vázquez-Juárez R. Differential expression of serine protease inhibitors 1 and 2 in Crassostrea corteziensis and C. virginica infected with Perkinsus marinus. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2015; 112:185-197. [PMID: 25590769 DOI: 10.3354/dao02808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Proliferation of Perkinsus marinus (Dermo) in vitro is inhibited by the action of 2 serine protease inhibitors belonging to the I-84 family. We compared the levels of expression of serine protease inhibitors 1 and 2 (SPI-1 and SPI-2) in 2 oyster species (Crassostrea virginica and C. corteziensis) inoculated with the parasite P. marinus. C. virginica is well known to be susceptible to this parasite, whereas C. corteziensis is apparently more tolerant. Oysters were inoculated with trophozoites (1 × 106 trophozoites oyster-1) of P. marinus while control oysters were injected with saline solution. Oysters were maintained in a closed water system for 2 wk. The oysters were then sacrificed and parasite burden, histological damage, and gene expression were evaluated. The results showed that the challenged oysters presented a significant increase in parasite burden, which generated histological damage in digestive gland and gills. Quantitative PCR detected significant differences in SPI-1 and SPI-2 expression levels in the 2 oyster species, with C. corteziensis showing higher expression levels than C. virginica as a response to P. marinus inoculation. Our results provide valuable information for the understanding of the defense response in C. corteziensis and a possible explanation for its tolerance to the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- J N Gutiérrez-Rivera
- Unidad de Micología y Fitopatología, Departamento de Microbiología e Inmunología, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León UANL, San Nicolás de los Garza, NL, Mexico
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Lafferty KD, Harvell CD, Conrad JM, Friedman CS, Kent ML, Kuris AM, Powell EN, Rondeau D, Saksida SM. Infectious diseases affect marine fisheries and aquaculture economics. ANNUAL REVIEW OF MARINE SCIENCE 2015; 7:471-96. [PMID: 25251276 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-marine-010814-015646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 271] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Seafood is a growing part of the economy, but its economic value is diminished by marine diseases. Infectious diseases are common in the ocean, and here we tabulate 67 examples that can reduce commercial species' growth and survivorship or decrease seafood quality. These impacts seem most problematic in the stressful and crowded conditions of aquaculture, which increasingly dominates seafood production as wild fishery production plateaus. For instance, marine diseases of farmed oysters, shrimp, abalone, and various fishes, particularly Atlantic salmon, cost billions of dollars each year. In comparison, it is often difficult to accurately estimate disease impacts on wild populations, especially those of pelagic and subtidal species. Farmed species often receive infectious diseases from wild species and can, in turn, export infectious agents to wild species. However, the impact of disease export on wild fisheries is controversial because there are few quantitative data demonstrating that wild species near farms suffer more from infectious diseases than those in other areas. The movement of exotic infectious agents to new areas continues to be the greatest concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin D Lafferty
- Western Ecological Research Center, US Geological Survey, c/o Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106; *
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Xu D, Sun L, Liu S, Zhang L, Yang H. Polymorphisms of heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) in the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus and their association with heat-resistance. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 41:428-436. [PMID: 25270529 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2014.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Revised: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/20/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) functions as a molecular chaperone and plays an important role in the resistance of organisms to stress, particularly heat-stress. In our study, 12 exons and 11 introns of hsp90 were identified in the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus. Twenty-two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), including three non-synonymous mutations, were detected in the exons. Susceptible and resistant individuals were distinguished using a high-temperature (32 °C) challenge experiment. Three blocks with high linkage disequilibrium were detected among these SNPs. Five of the twenty-two SNPs were shown to be significantly associated with susceptibility/resistance to high temperature by correlation analysis (chi-square test, P < 0.05). To confirm the importance of these five SNPs, a heat-resistance strain (HRS) was selected through three generations. Using the common population as the control group, it was shown that the distributions of genotypes and alleles of SNP e10-1 and e11-6 were significantly different between the two groups (P < 0.05). SNP e10-1 was trimorphic, with three alleles (A, C and T) and five genotypes (AA, CC, AT, CT and AC). The allele frequency of SNP e2-3 was also significantly associated with this trait (P < 0.05). This is the first demonstration of SNPs related to heat-resistance in A. japonicus and supports the use of SNP markers in the selective breeding of sea cucumbers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongxue Xu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, PR China
| | - Lina Sun
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Shilin Liu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Libin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Hongsheng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, PR China.
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Alemán Resto Y, Fernández Robledo JA. Identification of MMV Malaria Box inhibitors of Perkinsus marinus using an ATP-based bioluminescence assay. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111051. [PMID: 25337810 PMCID: PMC4206467 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Accepted: 09/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
"Dermo" disease caused by the protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus (Perkinsozoa) is one of the main obstacles to the restoration of oyster populations in the USA. Perkinsus spp. are also a concern worldwide because there are limited approaches to intervention against the disease. Based on the phylogenetic affinity between the Perkinsozoa and Apicomplexa, we exposed Perkinsus trophozoites to the Medicines for Malaria Venture Malaria Box, an open access compound library comprised of 200 drug-like and 200 probe-like compounds that are highly active against the erythrocyte stage of Plasmodium falciparum. Using a final concentration of 20 µM, we found that 4 days after exposure 46% of the compounds were active against P. marinus trophozoites. Six compounds with IC50 in the µM range were used to compare the degree of susceptibility in vitro of eight P. marinus strains from the USA and five Perkinsus species from around the world. The three compounds, MMV666021, MMV665807 and MMV666102, displayed a uniform effect across Perkinsus strains and species. Both Perkinsus marinus isolates and Perkinsus spp. presented different patterns of response to the panel of compounds tested, supporting the concept of strain/species variability. Here, we expanded the range of compounds available for inhibiting Perkinsus proliferation in vitro and characterized Perkinsus phenotypes based on their resistance to six compounds. We also discuss the implications of these findings in the context of oyster management. The Perkinsus system offers the potential for investigating the mechanism of action of the compounds of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yesmalie Alemán Resto
- Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) NSF Program - 2013 - Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, Boothbay, Maine, United States of America
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Zhang L, Li L, Zhu Y, Zhang G, Guo X. Transcriptome analysis reveals a rich gene set related to innate immunity in the Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica). MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2014; 16:17-33. [PMID: 23907648 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-013-9526-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
As a benthic filter-feeder of estuaries, the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, faces tremendous exposure to microbial pathogens. How eastern oysters without adaptive immunity survive in pathogen-rich environments is of fundamental interest, but studies on its immune system are hindered by the lack of genomic resources. We sequenced the transcriptome of an adult oyster with short Illumina reads and assembled 66,229 contigs with a N50 length of 1,503 bp. The assembly covered 89.4 % of published ESTs and 97.9 % of mitochondrial genes demonstrating its quality. A set of 39,978 contigs and unigenes (>300 bp) were identified and annotated by searching public databases. Analysis of the gene set yielded a diverse set of 657 genes related to innate immunity, including many pertaining to pattern recognition, effectors, signal transduction, cytokines, and apoptosis. Gene families encoding C1q domain containing proteins, CTLD, IAPs, Ig_I-set, and TRAFs expanded in C. virginica and Crassostrea gigas. Many key genes of the apoptosis system including IAP, BAX, BAC-2, caspase, FADD, and TNFR were identified, suggesting C. virginica possess advanced apoptosis and apoptosis-regulating systems. Our results show that short Illumina reads can produce transcriptomes of highly polymorphic genomes with coverage and integrity comparable to that from longer 454 reads. The expansion and high diversity in gene families related to innate immunity, point to a complex defense system in the lophotrochozoan C. virginica, probably in adaptation to a pathogen-rich environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Zhang
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
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Host–parasite interactions: Marine bivalve molluscs and protozoan parasites, Perkinsus species. J Invertebr Pathol 2013; 114:196-216. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2013.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Queiroga FR, Marques-Santos LF, Hégaret H, Soudant P, Farias ND, Schlindwein AD, Mirella da Silva P. Immunological responses of the mangrove oysters Crassostrea gasar naturally infected by Perkinsus sp. in the Mamanguape Estuary, Paraíba state (Northeastern, Brazil). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 35:319-327. [PMID: 23664909 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2013.04.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2012] [Revised: 04/20/2013] [Accepted: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Perkinsus genus includes protozoan parasites of marine mollusks, especially bivalves. In the last four years, this parasite has been detected in mangrove oysters Crassostrea rhizophorae and Crassostrea gasar from the Northeastern region of Brazil. Hemocytes are the key cells of the oyster immune system, being responsible for a variety of cellular and humoral reactions, such as phagocytosis, encapsulation and the release of several effector molecules that control the invasion and proliferation of microorganisms. In Brazil, there is little information on perkinsosis and none on the immune responses of native oysters' species against Perkinsus spp. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of natural infection by Perkinsus sp. on the immunological parameters of mangrove oysters C. gasar cultured in the Mamanguape River Estuary (Paraíba, Brazil). Adults oysters (N = 40/month) were sampled in December 2011, March, May, August and October 2012. Gills were removed and used to determine the presence and intensity of the Perkinsus sp. infection, according to a scale of four levels (1-4), using the Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium assay. Immunological parameters were measured in hemolymph samples by flow cytometry, including: total hemocyte count (THC), differential hemocyte count (DHC), cell mortality, phagocytic capacity, and production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). The plasma was used to determine the hemagglutination activity. The results showed the occurrence of Perkinsus sp. with the highest mean prevalence (93.3%) seen so far in oyster populations in Brazil. Despite that, no oyster mortality was associated. In contrast, we observed an increase in hemocyte mortality and a suppression of two of the main defense mechanisms, phagocytosis and ROS production in infected oysters. The increase in the percentage of blast-like cells on the hemolymph, and the increase in THC in oysters heavily infected (at the maximum intensity, 4) suggest an induction of hemocytes proliferation. The immunological parameters varied over the studied months, which may be attributed to the dynamics of infection by Perkinsus sp. The results of the present study demonstrate that Perkinsus sp. has a deleterious effect on C. gasar immune system, mainly in high intensities, which likely renders oysters more susceptible to other pathogens and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Ramos Queiroga
- Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus I, 58051-900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
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Li X, Cui Z, Liu Y, Song C, Shi G, Wang C. Polymorphisms of anti-lipopolysaccharide factors in the swimming crab Portunus trituberculatus and their association with resistance/susceptibility to Vibrio alginolyticus. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 34:1560-1568. [PMID: 23567857 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2013.03.373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Revised: 03/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/24/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Anti-lipopolysaccharide factor (ALF) is an important antimicrobial peptide (AMP) that can bind and neutralize major component of Gram-negative bacteria cell wall, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Seven isoforms of anti-lipopolysaccharide factors (PtALF1-7) were previously identified from the swimming crab Portunus trituberculatus in our laboratory. Here, polymorphisms of PtALF1-7 were detected and their association with resistance/susceptibility to Vibrio alginolyticus (a main Gram-negative bacteria causing high mortality in P. trituberculatus) were investigated. We identified 127, 96, 103, 53 and 158 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genomic fragments of PtALF1-3, PtALF4, PtALF5, PtALF6 and PtALF7, respectively. Among them, totally sixteen SNPs were significantly associated with resistance/susceptibility to V. alginolyticus (P < 0.05). Of these sixteen SNPs, most were located in introns and noncoding exons, while two synonymous SNPs and one nonsynonymous SNP were in coding exons. Additionally, simple sequence repeats (SSRs) were only identified in introns and noncoding exons of PtALF4, PtALF5 and PtALF7. Although no significant difference of allele frequencies was found, these SSRs had different polymorphic alleles according to the repeat number between susceptible and resistant stocks. After further confirmation, polymorphisms investigated here might be applied as potential molecular markers for future selection of resistant strains to diseases caused by Gram-negative bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xihong Li
- EMBL, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
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Smolowitz R. A Review of Current State of Knowledge Concerning Perkinsus marinus Effects on Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) (the Eastern Oyster). Vet Pathol 2013; 50:404-11. [DOI: 10.1177/0300985813480806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin), is both an important component of our estuaries and an important farmed food animal along the east and south coasts of the United States. Its populations have been significantly diminished in the wild due to decades of overfishing beginning in the 1890s. Unfortunately, in 1950, a new disease in eastern oysters caused by the protistan agent, Perkinsus marinus, was identified. The disease, resulting from infection with this protozoan, leads to high mortality of both wild and cultured eastern oysters. Current restoration efforts are hampered by the disease, as is the aquaculture of this economically important food. The parasite infects hemocytes and causes hemolytic anemia and general degeneration of the tissues, leading to death. Ongoing research efforts are attempting to develop oysters resistant to the disease. Transport regulations exist in may states. Infection with P. marinus is listed as a reportable disease by the World Health Organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Smolowitz
- Aquatic Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Biology and Marine Biology, Roger Williams University, Bristol, RI, USA
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