Host responses of Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus with lymphocystis cell formation

Fish Iridoviridae: infection, vaccination and immune response

Each year, due to climate change, an increasing number of new pathogens are being discovered and studied, leading to an increase in the number of known diseases affecting various fish species in different regions of the world. Viruses from the family Iridoviridae, which consist of the genera Megalocytivirus, Lymphocystivirus, and Ranavirus, cause epizootic outbreaks in farmed and wild, marine, and freshwater fish species (including ornamental fish). Diseases caused by fish viruses of the family Iridoviridae have a significant economic impact, especially in the aquaculture sector. Consequently, vaccines have been developed in recent decades, and their administration methods have improved. To date, various types of vaccines are available to control and prevent Iridoviridae infections in fish populations. Notably, two vaccines, specifically targeting Red Sea bream iridoviral disease and iridoviruses (formalin-killed vaccine and AQUAVAC® IridoV, respectively), are commercially available. In addition to exploring these themes, this review examines the immune responses in fish following viral infections or vaccination procedures. In general, the evasion mechanisms observed in iridovirus infections are characterised by a systemic absence of inflammatory responses and a reduction in the expression of genes associated with the adaptive immune response. Finally, this review also explores prophylactic procedure trends in fish vaccination strategies, focusing on future advances in the field.

Transcriptome analysis reveals molecular mechanisms of lymphocystis formation caused by lymphocystis disease virus infection in flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus)

Lymphocystis disease is frequently prevalent and transmissible in various teleost species worldwide due to lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) infection, causing unsightly growths of benign lymphocystis nodules in fish and resulting in huge economic losses to aquaculture industry. However, the molecular mechanism of lymphocystis formation is unclear. In this study, LCDV was firstly detected in naturally infected flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) by PCR, histopathological, and immunological techniques. To further understand lymphocystis formation, transcriptome sequencing of skin nodule tissue was performed by using healthy flounder skin as a control. In total, RNA-seq produced 99.36%-99.71% clean reads of raw reads, of which 91.11%-92.89% reads were successfully matched to the flounder genome. The transcriptome data showed good reproducibility between samples, with 3781 up-regulated and 2280 down-regulated differentially expressed genes. GSEA analysis revealed activation of Wnt signaling pathway, Hedgehog signaling pathway, Cell cycle, and Basal cell carcinoma associated with nodule formation. These pathways were analyzed to interact with multiple viral infection and tumor formation pathways. Heat map and protein interaction analysis revealed that these pathways regulated the expression of cell cycle-related genes such as ccnd1 and ccnd2 through key genes including ctnnb1, lef1, tcf3, gli2, and gli3 to promote cell proliferation. Additionally, cGMP-PKG signaling pathway, Calcium signaling pathway, ECM-receptor interaction, and Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction associated with nodule formation were significantly down-regulated. Among these pathways, tnfsf12, tnfrsf1a, and tnfrsf19, associated with pro-apoptosis, and vdac2, which promotes viral replication by inhibiting apoptosis, were significantly up-regulated. Visual analysis revealed significant down-regulation of cytc, which expresses the pro-apoptotic protein cytochrome C, as well as phb and phb2, which have anti-tumor activity, however, casp3 was significantly up-regulated. Moreover, bcl9, bcl11a, and bcl-xl, which promote cell proliferation and inhibit apoptosis, were significantly upregulated, as were fgfr1, fgfr2, and fgfr3, which are related to tumor formation. Furthermore, RNA-seq data were validated by qRT-PCR, and LCDV copy numbers and expression patterns of focused genes in various tissues were also investigated. These results clarified the pathways and differentially expressed genes associated with lymphocystis nodule development caused by LCDV infection in flounder for the first time, providing a new breakthrough in molecular mechanisms of lymphocystis formation in fish.

Peripheral Blood B-Lymphocytes Are Involved in Lymphocystis Disease Virus Infection in Flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) via Cellular Receptor-Mediated Mechanism

Previous studies imply that peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs) may play an important role in systemic lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) dissemination, but whether the PBLs are susceptible and permissive to LCDV infection and the dissemination mechanism need to be clarified. In this study, LCDV was firstly confirmed to infect the PBLs in flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) in vivo, and to replicate in PBLs in vitro. Subsequently, the 27.8 kDa receptor protein (27.8R), a functional receptor mediating LCDV infection in flounder gill cells, was shown to locate on the cell membrane of PBLs and co-localize with LCDV in PBLs, while blocking of the 27.8R via pre-incubation of anti-27.8R MAb with the PBLs could obviously inhibit LCDV infection, revealing the 27.8R as a receptor for LCDV entry into PBLs. Multicolor fluorescence imaging studies verified that IgM+ and IgD+ B-lymphocyte were involved in LCDV infection. In the sorted IgM+ B-cells, 27.8R+ and LCDV+ signals were simultaneously observed, and LCDV copy numbers increased with time, indicating that IgM+ B-cells expressed the 27.8R and were permissive to LCDV infection. Furthermore, the dynamic changes of IgM+, 27.8R+, LCDV+ and LCDV+/IgM+ PBLs were monitored during the early phase of LCDV infection. It was found that the percentage of IgM+ B-cells in PBLs clearly declined first and then increased, suggesting LCDV infection facilitated damage to B-cells, whereas the amounts of 27.8R+ and LCDV+ PBLs, as well as LCDV-infected IgM+ B-cells, showed an opposite trend. These results proved that IgM+ B-lymphocytes could be infected by LCDV via a receptor-mediated mechanism and support viral replication, which provided novel insights for the first time into the role of B-lymphocytes in LCDV dissemination and pathogenesis in teleost fish.

Heavy oil exposure suppresses antiviral activities in Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus infected with viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV)

A combined treatment of heavy oil (HO) exposure and virus infection induces increased mortality in Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). In this study, we addressed how HO exposure affects the immune system, especially antiviral activities, in Japanese flounder. The fish were infected with viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV), followed by exposure to HO. We analyzed virus titers in the heart and mRNA expression in the kidney of surviving fish. The virus titers in fish exposed to heavy oil were higher than the threshold for onset. The results suggest that HO exposure may allow the replication of VHSV, leading to higher mortality in the co-treated group. Gene-expression profiling demonstrated that the expression of antiviral-activity-related genes, such as those for interferon and apoptosis induction, were lower in the co-treated group than in the group with VHSV infection only. These results helped explain the high virus titers in fish treated with both stressors. Thus, interferon production in the virus-infected cells and apoptosis induction by natural killer cells worked normally in the VHSV-infected fish without HO exposure, but these antiviral activities were slightly suppressed by HO exposure, possibly leading to extensive viral replication in the host cells and the occurrence of VHS.

Genome Sequence of Lymphocystis Disease Virus 2 LCDV-JP_Oita_2018, Isolated from a Diseased Japanese Flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) in Japan

Here, we present the genome sequence of lymphocystis disease virus 2 LCDV-JP_Oita_2018 (genus Lymphocystivirus, family Iridoviridae), which was isolated from a diseased Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) in Japan. The LCDV-JP_Oita_2018 genome was assembled into a circular contig of 186,627 bp, with 140 predicted protein-coding genes and a GC content of 27%.

Immune gene expression in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) after Lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV-Sa) challenge resulting in asymptomatic infection

AIMS

To determine the immune gene expression response of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) that is experimentally infected with the lymphocystivirus LCDV-Sa.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Viral DNA and transcripts were detected by qPCR in all samples from fish injected with LCDV-Sa, demonstrating that the virus establish a systemic and asymptomatic infection. The expression of 23 immune-related genes was also analysed by RT-qPCR in the head kidney (HK) and intestine at several times post-infection (dpi). In HK, the expression of five type I interferon (IFN)-related genes (ifn, irf3, mx2, mx3 and isg15), il10 and ck10 was upregulated at 1-3 dpi, while genes related to the inflammation process (tnfα, il1ß, il6, casp1) were not differentially expressed or even downregulated. The expression profile in the intestine was different regarding type I INF-related genes. An upregulated c3 and ighm expression was observed in both HK and intestine at 3-8 dpi. Finally, the transcription of nccrp1 and mhcIIα was induced in HK, whereas tcrβ expression was downregulated in both organs.

CONCLUSIONS

LCDV-Sa seems to trigger an immune response in gilthead seabream characterized by a partial activation of type I IFN system and a lack of systemic inflammatory response which may be related to viral persistence.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The immune response observed in gilthead seabream infected by LCDV-Sa could be implicated in the establishment of an asymptomatic persistent infection.

Molecular characterization and functional analysis of Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) thbs2 in response to lymphocystis disease virus

In mammals, a matricellular protein, thrombospondin 2 (Thbs2) has been reported to play important roles in modulating cell-matrix interactions, vascular integrity and thrombosis formation. However, the role of gene, thbs2 has not yet been studied in teleost. In the present study, this novel fish gene from Japanese flounder was cloned and its function in resistant to lymphocystis disease virus was elucidated. The Japanese flounder thbs2 encoded a 1176-amino acid protein with 91% identity to medaka. Amino acid sequence indicated that Japanese flounder Thbs2 contained 10 typical conserved domains. The thbs2 was expressed in all stages of embryo development, and in hatched larva stage, its expression was significantly higher than that in other stages (P < 0.05). The relative expression level of thbs2 was significantly higher in the head kidney, liver, blood, gill, and heart of the lymphocystis disease virus resistant fish than in sensitive fish (P < 0.05); and in muscle, this difference was at highly significant (P < 0.01). Additionally, the distribution of Thbs2 in tissue was evaluated by immunohistochemical staining. Subcellular localization analysis showed that Thbs2 was distributed throughout the cytoplasm of the cells. Taken together, our results provide new basic data for thbs2 function, especially its role in anti-lymphocystis disease virus immune response.

Voltage-Dependent Anion Channel Protein 2 (VDAC2) and Receptor of Activated Protein C Kinase 1 (RACK1) Act as Functional Receptors for Lymphocystis Disease Virus Infection

In previous research, a 27.8-kDa protein in flounder Paralichthys olivaceus gill (FG) cells was identified as a putative cellular receptor (27.8R), which mediated lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) infection via interaction with a 32-kDa viral attachment protein (VAP) of LCDV, and monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against 27.8R and 32-kDa VAP were developed. In this study, the 27.8R was identified as voltage-dependent anion channel protein 2 (VDAC2) and receptor of activated protein C kinase 1 (RACK1) of flounder. Recombinant VDAC2 (rVDAC2) and RACK1 (rRACK1) were obtained by prokaryotic expression, and rabbit anti-VDAC2/RACK1 polyclonal antibodies were prepared. The rVDAC2, rRACK1, and 27.8-kDa proteins in FG cells were recognized by anti-27.8R MAbs and anti-VDAC2/RACK1 polyclonal antibodies simultaneously. Preincubation of FG cells with anti-VDAC2/RACK1 polyclonal antibodies significantly decreased the percentages of LCDV-infected cells and LCDV copy numbers, blocked virus infection, and delayed the development of cytopathic effect. The mRNA expressions of VDAC2 and RACK1 in FG cells were upregulated to maximum levels 12 h and 48 h after LCDV infection, respectively. VDAC2/RACK1 knockdown through short interfering RNA (siRNA) significantly reduced VDAC2/RACK1 expression and LCDV copy numbers in FG cells compared with negative controls, while VDAC2/RACK1 expression on LCDV-nonpermissive epithelial papillosum cells (EPCs) conferred susceptibility to LCDV infection, indicating the VDAC2 and RACK1 were sufficient to allow LCDV entry and infection. All these results collectively showed that VDAC2 and RACK1 function as receptors for LCDV entry and infection.IMPORTANCE Lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) is the causative agent of lymphocystis disease in fish, which has caused huge economic losses to the aquaculture industry worldwide, but the molecular mechanism underlying the LCDV-host interaction remains unclear. Here, the 27.8-kDa putative cellular receptor for LCDV was identified as voltage-dependent anion channel protein 2 (VDAC2) and receptor of activated protein C kinase 1 (RACK1), and our results revealed that VDAC2 and RACK1 expression was sufficient to allow LCDV entry and that they are functional receptors that initiate LCDV infection for the first time, which leads to a better understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying LCDV infection and virus-host interactions.

Development and Characterization of Monoclonal Antibodies to the 32 kDa Viral Attachment Protein of Lymphocystis Disease Virus and Their Neutralizing Ability in Vitro

In previous research, a 32 kDa protein in lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) was identified as viral attachment protein (VAP) that specifically interacted with the 27.8 kDa cellular receptor from flounder Paralichthys olivaceus gill (FG) cells, and the recombinant VAP (rVAP) was expressed in Escherichia coli strain BL21 (DE3). In this study, monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against 32 kDa VAP are produced by immunization of BALB/c mice with the rVAP. Seven hybridoma secreting MAbs were screened by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, five of which designated as 1C6, 1C8, 3B5, 3D11 and 3H10 are cloned by the limiting dilution method, depending on the strongly positive results of ELISA. Western blotting analysis shows that the five MAbs can specifically react with the 32 kDa protein of LCDV and the purified 50 kDa rVAP, and the subtype of the MAbs is identified as IgG. Immunofluorescence results demonstrate that the specific fluorescence signals for LCDV appear in the cytoplasm of FG cells at 24 h post LCDV infection. Neutralization assay results indicate that pre-incubations of LCDV with the five MAbs can significantly decrease the LCDV copy numbers and delay the development of the cytopathic effect in FG cells, revealing that the five MAbs can neutralize the LCDV particles and block viral infection in vitro. The neutralizing MAbs against 32 kDa VAP would be useful for the study on the LCDV⁻host interaction and might be promising inhibitors of LCDV infection in fish.

Transcriptome Analysis of Flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) Gill in Response to Lymphocystis Disease Virus (LCDV) Infection: Novel Insights into Fish Defense Mechanisms

Lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) infection may induce a variety of host gene expression changes associated with disease development; however, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying host-virus interactions is limited. In this study, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was employed to investigate differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the gill of the flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) at one week post LCDV infection. Transcriptome sequencing of the gill with and without LCDV infection was performed using the Illumina HiSeq 2500 platform. In total, RNA-seq analysis generated 193,225,170 clean reads aligned with 106,293 unigenes. Among them, 1812 genes were up-regulated and 1626 genes were down-regulated after LCDV infection. The DEGs related to cellular process and metabolism occupied the dominant position involved in the LCDV infection. A further function analysis demonstrated that the genes related to inflammation, the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, cell proliferation, apoptosis, tumor formation, and anti-viral defense showed a differential expression. Several DEGs including β actin, toll-like receptors, cytokine-related genes, antiviral related genes, and apoptosis related genes were involved in LCDV entry and immune response. In addition, RNA-seq data was validated by quantitative real-time PCR. For the first time, the comprehensive gene expression study provided valuable insights into the host-pathogen interaction between flounder and LCDV.

Gene expression profiles associated with lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) in experimentally infected Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis)

In the present study, the pathogenesis of lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) and the immune gene expression patterns associated with this viral infection were determined in the flatfish Senegalese sole. The results indicate that LCDV spreads rapidly from the peritoneal cavity through the bloodstream to reach target organs such as kidney, gut, liver, and skin/fin. The viral load was highest in kidney and reduced progressively thorough the experiment in spite of the viral major capsid protein gene was transcribed. The LCDV injection activated a similar set of differentially expressed transcripts in kidney and intestine although with some differences in the intensity and time-course response. This set included antiviral-related transcripts (including the mx and interferon-related factors irf1, irf2, irf3, irf7, irf8, irf9, irf10), cytokines (il1b, il6, il8, il12 and tnfa) and their receptors (il1r, il8r, il10r, il15ra, il17r), chemokines (CXC-type, CC-type and IL-8), prostaglandins (cox-2), g-type lysozymes, hepcidin, complement fractions (c2, c4-1 and c4-2) and the antigen differentiation factors cd4, cd8a, and cd8b. The expression profile observed indicated that the host triggered a systemic defensive response including inflammation able to cope with the viral challenge.

A 32 kDa viral attachment protein of lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) specifically interacts with a 27.8 kDa cellular receptor from flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus)

The 27.8 kDa protein in flounder gill (FG) cells was previously proved to be a receptor specific for lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) entry and infection. In this paper, a 32 kDa viral attachment protein (VAP) of LCDV specifically binding to the 27.8 kDa receptor (27.8R) was found by far-Western blotting coupled with monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against 27.8R. The 32 kDa protein was confirmed to be encoded by the open reading frame (ORF) 038 gene in LCDV-C, and predicted to contain a putative transmembrane region, multiple N-myristoylation and glycosylation sites and phosphorylation motifs. The expression plasmid of pET-32a-ORF038 was constructed and the recombinant VAP (rVAP) was obtained. Rabbit polyclonal antibodies against the rVAP were prepared and could recognize the rVAP and 32 kDa protein in LCDV. Immunogold electron microscopy showed that the 32 kDa protein was located on the surface of LCDV particles. Immunofluorescence assay demonstrated that the rVAP could bind to the 27.8R on the cell membrane of the FG monolayer and the anti-27.8R MAbs could block the rVAP binding. Pre-incubation of the rVAP with FG cells before LCDV infection, or pre-incubation of LCDV with the antibodies against the rVAP, could significantly decrease the LCDV copy numbers (P<0.05) and delay the emergence of cytopathic effects in FG cells in a dose-dependent manner. These results indicated for the first time that the 32 kDa protein functioned as an attachment protein for the initial attachment and entry of LCDV, and the interaction of the 32 kDa VAP with the 27.8R-initiated LCDV infection.

Target organs for lymphocystis disease virus replication in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata)

The lymphocystis disease (LCD), the main viral pathology described in cultured gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), is a self-limiting condition characterized by the appearance of hypertrophied fibroblasts (named lymphocysts) in the connective tissue of fish, primarily in the skin and fins. The causative agent of the disease is the Lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV), a member of the Iridoviridae family. In the present study, LCDV genome and transcripts were detected by real-time PCR in caudal fin, as well as in several internal organs, such as intestine, liver, spleen, kidney and brain, from asymptomatic, diseased and recovered gilthead seabream juveniles. These results indicate that the LCDV has a broad range tissue tropism, and can establish a systemic infection, even in subclinically infected fish. As showed by in situ hybridization, the permissive cells for LCDV infection seem to be fibroblasts, hepatocytes and cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system. Histopathological alterations associated with LCD were observed in all the organs analysed, including necrotic changes in liver and kidney, inflammatory response in the intestine submucosa or brain haemorrhage, although lymphocysts were only detected in the dermis of the caudal fin. Nevertheless, these histological changes were reverted in recovered animals.

Integrating genomic resources of flatfish (Pleuronectiformes) to boost aquaculture production

Flatfish have a high market acceptance thus representing a profitable aquaculture production. The main farmed species is the turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) followed by Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceous) and tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis), but other species like Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus), Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) and common sole (Solea solea) also register an important production and are very promising for farming. Important genomic resources are available for most of these species including whole genome sequencing projects, genetic maps and transcriptomes. In this work, we integrate all available genomic information of these species within a common framework, taking as reference the whole assembled genomes of turbot and tongue sole (>210× coverage). New insights related to the genetic basis of productive traits and new data useful to understand the evolutionary origin and diversification of this group were obtained. Despite a general 1:1 chromosome syntenic relationship between species, the comparison of turbot and tongue sole genomes showed huge intrachromosomic reorganizations. The integration of available mapping information supported specific chromosome fusions along flatfish evolution and facilitated the comparison between species of previously reported genetic associations for productive traits. When comparing transcriptomic resources of the six species, a common set of ~2500 othologues and ~150 common miRNAs were identified, and specific sets of putative missing genes were detected in flatfish transcriptomes, likely reflecting their evolutionary diversification.

Characterization of the gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) immune response under a natural lymphocystis disease virus outbreak

Lymphocystis or lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) is distributed worldwide and affects many fresh and marine water fish species. LCDV is commonly found in aquaria fish species but also in farmed fish species, among them the gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.). The immune status of gilthead seabream (S. aurata) specimens under a natural outbreak of LCDV was studied. The replication of the virus was demonstrated in infected fish, but not in control fish. The results showed decreased total serum IgM levels and increased innate cellular immune response (peroxidase and respiratory burst activities) of head kidney leucocytes in LCDV-infected fish, compared to the values obtained in uninfected specimens. In addition, transcription of antiviral genes (ifn and irf3) was down-regulated in the skin of LCDV-positive fish as well as genes involved in cellular immunity (csf1r, mhc2a, tcra and ighm) that were down-regulated in skin and head kidney of infected fish. By contrast, the transcription of nccrp1 was up-regulated in head kidney after LCDV infection. These present results show that head kidney leucocytes are activated to encounter the virus at the sites of replication.

Transcriptomic response to water accommodated fraction of crude oil exposure in the gill of Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus

Illumina-based RNA-seq was used to determine the short-term transcriptomic responses of Paralichthys olivaceus gill to an environmentally relevant level of water accommodated fraction (WAF) of crude oil. 213,979 transcripts and 128,482 unigenes were obtained. Differential expression analysis revealed that 1641 and 2142 genes were significantly up- and down-regulated. Enrichment analysis identified a set of GO terms and putative pathways involved in the response of P. olivaceus to WAF exposure. Analysis of the transcripts revealed the effective protective mechanisms of P. olivaceus to reduce the toxic effects of WAF. Moreover, WAF exposure induced the metabolism of energy substrates, and downstream pathway genes were modified to provide protection against toxic damage. Transcripts analysis demonstrated that the genes involved in circadian rhythm signaling were regulated in gills of P. olivaceus exposed to WAF. These results provide insights into the mechanisms of WAF-induced toxicity in fishes and into the WAF-sensitive biomarkers in P. olivaceus.

Relationship between Expression of Cellular Receptor-27.8 kDa and Lymphocystis Disease Virus (LCDV) Infection

The 27.8 kDa membrane protein from flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) gill (FG) cells was previously identified as a putative cellular receptor involved in lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV) infection. In this paper, the expression of receptor-27.8 kDa (27.8R) and LCDV loads in FG cells and hirame natural embryo (HINAE) cells were investigated upon LCDV infection and anti-27.8R monoclonal antibody (MAb) treatment. The results showed the 27.8R was expressed and co-localized with LCDV in both FG and HINAE cell surface. After LCDV infection, the expression of 27.8R exhibited a dose-dependent up-regulation with the increasing of LCDV titers, and demonstrated a tendency to increase firstly and then decrease during a time course up to 9 days; LCDV copies showed a similar variation trend to the 27.8R expression, however, it reached the highest level later than did the 27.8R expression. Additionally, the 27.8R expression and LCDV copies in FG cells were higher than those in HINAE cells. In the presence of increasing concentration of the anti-27.8R MAbs, the up-regulation of 27.8R expression and the copy numbers of LCDV significantly declined post LCDV infection, and the cytopathic effect induced by LCDV in the two cell lines was accordingly reduced, indicating anti-27.8R MAbs pre-incubation could inhibit the up-regulation of 27.8R expression and LCDV infection. These results suggested that LCDV infection could induce up-regulation of 27.8R expression, which in turn increased susceptibility and availability of FG and HINAE cells for LCDV entry, providing important new insights into the LCDV replication cycle and the interaction between this virus and the host cells.