Hospital length of stay after lung transplantation: Independent predictors and association with early and late survival

Perioperative Considerations Regarding Sex in Solid Organ Transplantation

Sex plays a pivotal role in all stages of the organ transplant process. In the preoperative phase, sex can affect being listed or considered for a transplant, and sex/size matching of organs is necessary for some organ transplants, thereby affecting organ availability. In the postoperative period, sex has a profound impact on complications as well as graft survival. Sex-related differences in organ transplantation are likely multifactorial related to biological and social characteristics. This article provides an overview of the impact of sex on various types of solid organ transplant, including kidney, pancreas, liver, lung, and heart transplants.

Creating a Risk Score for Prolonged Length of Stay Following Pediatric Lung Transplants

BACKGROUND

Pediatric lung transplant (LT) outcomes correlate with prolonged length of stay (pLOS), yet a paucity of research exists predicting pLOS in this population. We aim to identify factors associated with pLOS following pediatric LT, and to create a risk score identifying individual patients at increased risk of pLOS.

METHODS

Using the OPTN database, we analyzed 733 pediatric patients who received an LT between January 2000-July 2022. We used LASSO regularization to identify factors predicting pLOS. A risk score was calculated using odds ratios for each variable in the model.

RESULTS

LASSO was run on 51 factors and identified 13 to be included in the model. The variables with the highest negative impact on LOS were recipient ethnicity (Asian, Native American, Pacific Islanders, or Mixed Race) (OR = 3.187), recipient requiring life support (OR = 2.354), and recipient age 2-10 years old (OR = 2.203). In contrast, low cold ischemia time (OR = 0.562), time on waitlist 21-60 days (OR = 0.284), and diagnosis of primary pulmonary hypertension (OR = 0.307) had protective effects on LOS. Using the risk score, we stratified patients into three equal groups: low (mean LOS = 20.60 days), medium (mean LOS = 22.53 days), and high risk (mean LOS = 36.72 days) of pLOS. The c-statistic for the model was 0.7931 and 0.7757 for the risk score.

CONCLUSIONS

Using this model and risk score, physicians and healthcare systems could identify patients at risk of pLOS and could intervene on preventable variables before transplantation.

Investigating an appropriate indicator of acute kidney injury for patient prognosis following lung transplantation

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the correlation between different subtypes of acute kidney injury (AKI) and clinical outcomes following lung transplantation (LTx) and to identify a reliable indicator for predicting poor prognosis in the LTx population.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed the clinical data of 279 LTx patients from August 2016 to March 2023. The AKI subtypes included AKI, persistent AKI on Day 7 (P7-AKI) and Day 14 (P14-AKI) after LTx, and AKI stages. The correlations of these factors with respiratory outcomes, mortality at 90 days, mortality at 1 year and data finalization were assessed, and the risk factors for the selected AKI subtypes were evaluated.

RESULTS

AKI occurred in 215 patients (77.1%), with 129 (46.2%) experiencing P7-AKI and 95 (34.1%) experiencing P14-AKI. P7-AKI was associated with more respiratory and mortality outcomes than were AKI and AKI stages, and P7-AKI surpassed P14-AKI in terms of a shorter diagnostic time. After adjusting for age, sex, BMI, type of transplant, transplant diagnosis and comorbidities, P7-AKI independently correlated with increased mortality risk at 90 days [HR 12.312 (95% CI: 2.839-53.402)], 1 year [HR 3.847 (95% CI: 1.840-8.044)], and data finalization [HR 2.010 (95% CI: 1.331-3.033)]. Five variables were identified as independent predictors for P7-AKI, including preoperative body mass index, prothrombin activity, hemoglobin and serum creatinine, and intraoperative colloid administration.

CONCLUSION

P7-AKI has been identified as a reliable indicator for predicting adverse outcomes in LTx patients, which may assist healthcare professionals in identifying high-risk individuals.

Impact of minimally invasive lung transplantation on early outcomes and analgesia use: A matched cohort study

BACKGROUND

Minimally invasive (MI) approaches to lung transplantation (LTx) offer the prospect of faster recovery compared to traditional incisions, however, little data exist describing the impact of surgical technique on early outcomes and analgesia use.

METHODS

A prospectively maintained institutional registry identified 170 patients who underwent LTx between January, 2017 and June, 2022. Post-COVID acute respiratory distress syndrome, repeat, and multiorgan transplants were excluded (n = 27) leaving 37 MILTx and 106 traditional LTx patients. Propensity score matching by age, sex, body mass index, diagnosis, lung allocation score, double vs. single lung, hypertension, diabetes, and hospitalization status created 37 pairs.

RESULTS

Before matching, MILTx patients were more often male (70% vs 43%) and more likely to receive grafts from younger (31 vs 42 years), circulatory death donors (19% vs 6%) compared with traditional LTx patients (all p < 0.05). After matching, there were no differences in graft warm ischemia or operative duration (both p > 0.05). Postoperatively, MILTx experienced shorter intensive care unit (ICU) (4.3 [IQR 3.1-5.5] vs 8.2 [IQR 3.7-10.8] days) and hospital lengths of stay (LOS) (13 [IQR 11-15] vs 17 [IQR 12-25] days) (both p < 0.05). Among patients surviving to discharge, MILTx patients required fewer opioid prescriptions at discharge (38% vs 66%, p = 0.008) and had improved pulmonary function at 3 months (Forced expiratory volume in 1 second 82 [IQR 72-102] vs 77 [IQR 52-88]% predicted; forced vital capacity 78 [IQR 65-92] vs 70 [IQR 62-80]% predicted] (both p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Minimally invasive LTx techniques demonstrate potential advantages over traditional approaches, including reduced ICU and hospital LOS, lower opioid use on discharge, and improved early pulmonary function.

The impact of bleeding on outcomes following lung transplantation: a retrospective analysis using the universal definition of perioperative bleeding

BACKGROUND

Lung transplantation (LT) represents a high-risk procedure for end-stage lung diseases. This study describes the outcomes of patients undergoing LT that require massive transfusions as defined by the universal definition of perioperative bleeding (UDPB).

METHODS

Adult patients who underwent bilateral LT at a single academic center were surveyed retrospectively. Patients were grouped by insignificant, mild, or moderate perioperative bleeding (insignificant-to-moderate bleeders) and severe or massive perioperative bleeding (severe-to-massive bleeders) based on the UDPB classification. Outcomes included 1-year survival and primary graft dysfunction (PGD) of grade 3 at 72 h postoperatively. Multivariable models were adjusted for recipient age, sex, body mass index (BMI), Lung allocation score (LAS), preoperative hemoglobin (Hb), preoperative extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) status, transplant number, and donor status. An additional multivariable model was created to find preoperative and intraoperative predictors of severe-to-massive bleeding. A p-value less than 0.05 was selected for significance.

RESULTS

A total of 528 patients were included, with 357 insignificant-to-moderate bleeders and 171 severe-to-massive bleeders. Postoperatively, severe-to-massive bleeders had higher rates of PGD grade 3 at 72 h, longer hospital stays, higher mortality rates at 30 days and one year, and were less likely to achieve textbook outcomes for LT. They also required postoperative ECMO, reintubation for over 48 h, tracheostomy, reintervention, and dialysis at higher rates. In the multivariate analysis, severe-to-massive bleeding was significantly associated with adverse outcomes after adjusting for recipient and donor factors, with an odds ratio of 7.73 (95% CI: 4.27-14.4, p < 0.001) for PGD3 at 72 h, 4.30 (95% CI: 2.30-8.12, p < 0.001) for 1-year mortality, and 1.75 (95% CI: 1.52-2.01, p < 0.001) for longer hospital stays. Additionally, severe-to-massive bleeders were less likely to achieve textbook outcomes, with an odds ratio of 0.07 (95% CI: 0.02-0.16, p < 0.001). Preoperative and intraoperative predictors of severe/massive bleeding were identified, with White patients having lower odds compared to Black patients (OR: 041, 95% CI: 0.22-0.80, p = 0.008). Each 1-unit increase in BMI decreased the odds of bleeding (OR: 0.89, 95% CI: 0.83-0.95, p < 0.001), while each 1-unit increase in MPAP increased the odds of bleeding (OR: 1.04, 95% CI: 1.02-1.06, p < 0.001). First-time transplant recipients had lower risk (OR: 0.16, 95% CI: 0.06-0.36, p < 0.001), whereas those with DCD donors had a higher risk of severe-to-massive bleeding (OR: 3.09, 95% CI: 1.63-5.87, p = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that patients at high risk of massive bleeding require higher utilization of hospital resources. Understanding their outcomes is important, as it may inform future decisions to transplant comparable patients.

Survival Tree Provides Individualized Estimates of Survival After Lung Transplant

INTRODUCTION

Identifying contributors to lung transplant survival is vital in mitigating mortality. To enhance individualized mortality estimation and determine variable interaction, we employed a survival tree algorithm utilizing recipient and donor data.

METHODS

United Network Organ Sharing data (2000-2021) were queried for single and double lung transplants in adult patients. Graft survival time <7 d was excluded. Sixty preoperative and immediate postoperative factors were evaluated with stepwise logistic regression on mortality; final model variables were included in survival tree modeling. Data were split into training and testing sets and additionally validated with 10-fold cross validation. Survival tree pruning and model selection was based on Akaike information criteria and log-likelihood values. Estimated survival probabilities and log-rank pairwise comparisons between subgroups were calculated.

RESULTS

A total of 27,296 lung transplant patients (8175 single; 19,121 double lung) were included. Stepwise logistic regression yielded 47 significant variables associated with mortality. Survival tree modeling returned six significant factors: recipient age, length of stay from transplant to discharge, recipient ventilator duration post-transplant, double lung transplant, recipient reintubation post-transplant, and donor cytomegalovirus status. Eight subgroups consisting of combinations of these factors were identified with distinct Kaplan-Meier survival curves.

CONCLUSIONS

Survival trees provide the ability to understand the effects and interactions of covariates on survival after lung transplantation. Individualized survival probability with this technique found that preoperative and postoperative factors influence survival after lung transplantation. Thus, preoperative patient counseling should acknowledge a degree of uncertainty given the influence of postoperative factors.

Influence of acute kidney injury and its recovery subtypes on patient-centered outcomes after lung transplantation

This study aimed to investigate the association between acute kidney injury (AKI) recovery subtypes and days alive out of hospital within the first 3 months (DAOH-90) in patients undergoing lung transplantation. Patients who underwent lung transplantation from January 2012 to December 2021 were retrospectively analyzed and stratified into three groups: no-AKI, early recovery AKI (within 7 days), and non-early recovery AKI group. AKI occurred in 86 (35%) of patients, of which 40 (16%) achieved early recovery, and the remaining 46 (19%) did not. The median DAOH-90 was 21 days shorter in the AKI than in the no-AKI (P = 0.002), and 29 days shorter in the non-early recovery AKI group than in the no-AKI group (P < 0.001). Non-early recovery AKI and preoperative tracheostomy status were independently associated with shorter DAOH-90. The prevalence of CKD (76%), and 1-year mortality (48%) were highest in the non-early recovery AKI group. Postoperative AKI was associated with an adverse patient-centered quality measure for perioperative care, and shorter DAOH-90. The non-early recovery AKI group exhibited the worst prognosis in terms of DAOH-90, CKD progression, and 1-year mortality, highlighting the important role of AKI and early-recovery AKI on both the quality of life and clinical outcomes after lung transplantation.

Perceptions of barriers to and facilitators of exercise rehabilitation in adults with lung transplantation: a qualitative study in China

BACKGROUND

Exercise is crucial for pulmonary rehabilitation and improving the prognosis of lung transplantation (LTx) patients. However, many LTx patients in China have low exercise tolerance and compliance, and the reasons behind these challenges have not been fully elucidated. Therefore, this qualitative research aims to identify the barriers to and facilitators of exercise rehabilitation in LTx patients.

METHODS

From January to July 2023, 15 stable LTx patients were recruited and participated in in-depth, semi-structured, face-to-face interviews at Henan Provincial People's Hospital. The interview transcripts were analyzed using the COM-B model and the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF).

RESULTS

Six general themes including 19 barriers and 14 facilitators for the exercise rehabilitation of LTx patients were identified based on the COM-B model and TDF. The barriers to exercise included physical limitations, insufficient exercise endurance, lack of knowledge, and lack of motivation. The facilitators of exercise included motivation, self-efficacy, perceived significance of exercise rehabilitation, and social support.

CONCLUSION

The study offers detailed insight into the development and implementation of exercise rehabilitation intervention strategies for LTx patients. By combining COM-B model and TDF, the study provides strong evidence that active behavior change strategies are required for LTx patients to promote their participation in exercise rehabilitation. Professional support, pulmonary rehabilitation training, behavior change technology, and digital health tools are essential for strengthening the evidence system for reporting exercise efficacy and effectiveness.

Single vs Bilateral Lung Transplant in the Management of Patients With Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Lung transplantation is recommended for select patients with end-stage chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). However, a consensus has not been reached regarding the optimal choice of lung transplantation: single lung transplants (SLTs) vs bilateral lung transplants (BLTs). This meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of SLT compared with BLT in managing end-stage COPD.

METHODS

Cochrane, Embase, PubMed, and Scopus were searched for articles by 2 independent reviewers using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis system. The review was registered prospectively with PROSPERO (CRD42022343408).

RESULTS

Seven studies of 311 screened met the eligibility criteria, with a total of 10,652 patients with end-stage COPD, SLT (n = 6233), or BLT (n = 4419). Overall survival rates of BLT group were more favorable than SLT group at 1 (odds ratio [OR] = 1.29, 95% CI: 1.16, 1.43, I2 = 0%), 5 (OR = 1.46, 95% CI: 1.35, 1.58, I2 = 23%), and 10 years (OR = 1.71, 95% CI: 1.57, 1.87, I2 = 12%) as well as the hazard ratio (HR = 0.73, 95% CI: 0.70, 0.76, I2 = 40%). Subgroup analysis on survival rates of alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency also displayed a trend favoring BLT compared with SLT at 1 (OR = 1.60, 95% CI: 1.24, 2.08, I2 = 28%), 5 (OR = 1.84, 95% CI: 1.50, 2.26, I2 = 42%), and 10 years (OR = 1.98, 95% CI: 1.59, 2.48, I2 = 47%) as well as the HR (HR = 0.67, 95% CI: 0.35, 1.28, I2 = 82%).

CONCLUSION

Compared with SLT, BLT seems to demonstrate more favorable trends in survival rates for the management of end-stage COPD. Despite the promising results, the groups have significant heterogeneity in baseline characteristics. Further prospective studies with extended follow-up periods are needed to ascertain the efficacy of treatment.

Application of organ dysfunction assessment scores following pediatric lung transplantation

OBJECTIVE

Organ dysfunction (OD) after lung transplantation can reflect preoperative organ failure, intraoperative acute organ damage and post-operative complications. We assessed two OD scoring systems, both the PEdiatric Logistic Organ Dysfunction (PELOD) and the pediatric Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (pSOFA) scores, in recognizing risk factors for morbidity as well as recipients with prolonged post-transplant morbidity.

DESIGN

Medical records of recipients from January 2009 to March 2016 were reviewed. PELOD and pSOFA scores were calculated on post-transplant days 1-3. Risk factors assessed included cystic fibrosis (CF), prolonged surgical time and worst primary graft dysfunction (PGD) score amongst others. Patients were classified into three groups based on their initial scores (group A) and subsequent trends either uptrending (group B) or downtrending (group C). Morbidity outcomes were compared between these groups.

RESULTS

Total 98 patients were enrolled aged 0-20 years. Risk factors for higher pSOFA scores ≥ 5 on day 1 included non-CF diagnosis and worst PGD scores (p = .0006 and p = .03, respectively). Kruskal Wallis analysis comparing pSOFA group A versus B versus C scores showed significantly prolonged ventilatory days (median 1 vs. 4 vs. 2, p = .0028) and ICU days (median 4 vs. 10 vs. 6, p = .007). Similarly, PELOD group A versus B versus C scores showed significantly prolonged ventilatory days (1 vs. 5 vs. 2, p = < .0001).

CONCLUSION

Implementing pSOFA scores bedside is a more effective tool compared to PELOD in identifying risk factors for worsened OD post-lung transplant and can be valuable in providing direction on morbidity outcomes in the ICU.

Lung Transplant Rehabilitation-A Review

BACKGROUND

Both lung transplant recipients and candidates are characterised by reduced training capacity and low average quality of life (QoL). This review investigates the impact of training on exercise ability and QoL in patients before and after lung transplant.

METHODS

Searches were conducted from the beginning to 7 March 2022 using the terms "exercise," "rehabilitation," "lung transplant," "exercise ability," "survival," "quality of life" and "telerehabilitation" in six databases, including Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), PubMed, CINAHL, Nursing and Allied Health, and Scopus. The inclusion criteria were studies evaluating the effects of an exercise training programme concurrent with lung transplantation as well as patients and candidates (>18 years old) through any lung diseases. The term "lung transplant rehabilitation" was used to refer to all carefully thought-out physical activities with the ultimate or intermediate objective of improving or maintaining physical health.

RESULTS

Out of 1422 articles, 10 clinical- and 3 telerehabilitation studies, candidates (n = 420) and recipients (n = 116) were related to the criteria and included in this review. The main outcome significantly improved in all studies. The 6-min walk distance, maximum exercise capacity, peak oxygen uptake, or endurance for constant load rate cycling improved measuring physical activity [aerobic exercises, breathing training, and aerobic and inspiratory muscle training sessions (IMT)]. Overall scores for dyspnoea improved after exercise training. Furthermore, health-related quality of life (HRQOL) also improved after aerobic exercise training, which was performed unsupervised or accompanied by breathing sessions. Aerobic training alone rather than combined with inspiratory muscle- (IMT) or breathing training enhanced exercise capacity.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, rehabilitation programmes seem to be beneficial to patients both preceding and following lung transplantation. More studies are required to determine the best training settings in terms of time scale, frequency, and work intensity in terms of improving exercise ability, dyspnoea, and HRQOL.

Textbook Outcome: Definition and Analysis of a Novel Quality Measure in Lung Transplantation

OBJECTIVE

To define textbook outcome (TO) for lung transplantation (LTx) using a contemporary cohort from a high-volume institution.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

TO is a standardized, composite quality measure based on multiple postoperative endpoints representing the ideal "textbook" hospitalization.

METHODS

Adult patients who underwent LTx at our institution between 2016 and 2019 were included. TO was defined as freedom from intraoperative complication, postoperative reintervention, 30-day intensive care unit or hospital readmission, length of stay >75th percentile of LTx patients, 90 day mortality, 30-day acute rejection, grade 3 primary graft dysfunction at 48 or 72 hours, postoperative extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, tracheostomy within 7 days, inpatient dialysis, reintubation, and extubation >48 hours post-transplant. Recipient, operative, financial characteristics, and post-transplant outcomes were recorded from institutional data and compared between TO and non-TO groups.

RESULTS

Of 401 LTx recipients, 97 (24.2%) achieved TO. The most common reason for TO failure was extubation >48 hours post-transplant (N = 119, 39.1%); the least common was mortality (N = 15, 4.9%). Patient and graft survival were improved among patients who achieved versus failed TO (patient survival: log-rank P < 0.01; graft survival: log-rank P < 0.01). Rejection-free and chronic lung allograft dysfunction-free survival were similar between TO and non-TO groups (rejection-free survival: log-rank P = 0.07; chronic lung allograft dysfunction-free survival: log-rank P = 0.3). On average, patients who achieved TO incurred approximately $638,000 less in total inpatient charges compared to those who failed TO.

CONCLUSIONS

TO in LTx was associated with favorable post-transplant outcomes and significant cost-savings. TO may offer providers and patients new insight into transplant center quality of care and highlight areas for improvement.

Time Trends in Clinical Characteristics and Hospital Outcomes of Hospitalizations for Lung Transplantation in COPD Patients in Spain from 2016 to 2020-Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic

(1) Background: To examine the clinical characteristics and hospital outcomes of hospitalization for lung transplantation in COPD patients in Spain from 2016 to 2020; and to assess if the COVID-19 pandemic has affected the number or the outcomes of lung transplantations in these patients. (2) Methods: We used the Spanish National Hospital Discharge Database to select subjects who had a code for COPD (ICD-10: J44) and had undergone a lung transplantation (ICD-10 codes OBYxxxx). (3) Results: During the study period, 704 lung transplants were performed among COPD patients (single 31.68%, bilateral 68.32%). The absolute number of transplants increased with raising rates of 8%, 14% and 19% annually from 2016 to 2019. However, a marked decrease of -18% was observed from 2019 to year 2020. Overall, 47.44% of the patients suffered at least one complication, being the most frequent lung transplant rejection (24.15%), followed by lung transplant infection (13.35%). The median length of hospital stay (LOHS) was 33 days and the in-hospital-mortality (IHM) was 9.94%. Variables associated with increased risk of mortality were a Comorbidity Charlson Index ≥ 1 (OR 1.82; 95%CI 1.08-3.05) and suffering any complication of the lung transplantation (OR 2.14; 95%CI 1.27-3.6). COPD patients in 2020 had a CCI ≥ 1 in a lower proportion than 2019 patients (29.37 vs. 38.51%; p = 0.015) and less frequently suffered any complications after the lung transplantation (41.26 vs. 54.6%; p = 0.013), no changes in the LOHS or the IHM were detected from 2019 to 2020. (4) Conclusions: Our study showed a constant increase in the number of lung transplantations from 2016 to 2019 in COPD patients, with a drop from 2019 to 2020, probably related to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, no changes in LOHS or IHM were detected over time.

Predictors of Length of Stay and Mortality During Simultaneous Liver-Kidney Transplant Index Admission: Results From the US-Multicenter SLKT Consortium

Length of stay (LOS) during index solid organ transplant impacts morbidity and healthcare costs. To date, there are no studies evaluating characteristics and outcomes of simultaneous liver-kidney transplant (SLKT) index hospitalization. We examined factors associated with LOS and mortality during index SLKT admission.

Methods

Adult SLKT recipients between 2002 and 2017 at 6 transplant centers across 6 UNOS regions were retrospectively enrolled in the US-Multicenter SLKT Consortium. Multivariable regression analyses assessed predictors of SLKT LOS and death during index admission.

Results

Median age of cohort (N = 570) was 58 y (interquartile range: 51-64); 63% male, 75% White, 32.3% hepatitis C, 23.3% alcohol-related, 20.1% nonalcoholic steatohepatitis with median MELD-Na at SLKT 28 (23-34). Seventy-one percent were hospitalized at the time of SLKT with median LOS pretransplant of 10 d. Majority of patients were discharged alive (N = 549; 96%)' and 36% were discharged to subacute rehab facility. LOS for index SLKT was 19 d (Q1: 10, Q3: 34 d). Female sex (P = 0.003), Black race (P = 0.02), advanced age (P = 0.007), ICU admission at time of SLKT (P = 0.03), high MELD-Na (P = 0.003), on cyclosporine during index hospitalization (P = 0.03), pre-SLKT dialysis (P < 0.001), and kidney delayed graft function (P < 0.001) were the recipient factors associated with prolonged LOS during index SLKT hospitalization. Prolonged LOS also contributed to overall mortality (HR = 1.007; P = 0.03).

Conclusions

Despite excellent survival, index SLKT admission was associated with high-resource utilization with more than half the patients with LOS >2 wk and affected overall patient survival. Further investigation is needed to optimize healthcare resources for these patients in a financially strained healthcare landscape.

Impact of anastomosis time during lung transplantation on primary graft dysfunction

Primary graft dysfunction (PGD) is a major obstacle after lung transplantation (LTx), associated with increased early morbidity and mortality. Studies in liver and kidney transplantation revealed prolonged anastomosis time (AT) as an independent risk factor for impaired short- and long-term outcomes. We investigated if AT during LTx is a risk factor for PGD. In this retrospective single-center cohort study, we included all first double lung transplantations between 2008 and 2016. The association of AT with any PGD grade 3 (PGD3) within the first 72 h post-transplant was analyzed by univariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis. Data on AT and PGD was available for 427 patients of which 130 (30.2%) developed PGD3. AT was independently associated with the development of any PGD3 ≤72 h in uni- (odds ratio [OR] per 10 min 1.293, 95% confidence interval [CI 1.136-1.471], p < .0001) and multivariable (OR 1.205, 95% CI [1.022-1.421], p = .03) logistic regression analysis. There was no evidence that the relation between AT and PGD3 differed between lung recipients from donation after brain death versus donation after circulatory death donors. This study identified AT as an independent risk factor for the development of PGD3 post-LTx. We suggest that the implantation time should be kept short and the lung cooled to decrease PGD-related morbidity and mortality post-LTx.

Ventricular assist device bridging with gender-mismatch increases rejection and decreases survival following a heart transplant

OBJECTIVES

Survival is poor following an orthotopic heart transplant with gender-mismatched donors and recipients. Patients bridged to an orthotopic heart transplant with a ventricular assist device (VAD) frequently become sensitized. We hypothesized that the combination of VAD bridging and gender-mismatch may result in greater rejection and poorer survival.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the United Network of Organ Sharing database. Patients were divided into 4 groups: (i) VAD recipients who received a heart from a gender-matched donor (VAD-M); (ii) VAD recipients who received a heart from a gender-mismatched donor (VAD-MM); (iii) noVAD recipients who received a heart from a gender-matched donor (noVAD-M); and (iv) noVAD recipients who received a heart from a gender-mismatched donor (noVAD-MM). Rejection episodes within 1-year post-transplant and transplant survival were compared in VAD-M versus VAD-MM and noVAD-M versus noVAD-MM groups, respectively.

RESULTS

Between January 2000 and June 2017, of 33 401 adult patients who underwent heart transplants, 8648, 2441, 12 761 and 4992 patients were identified as VAD-M, VAD-MM, noVAD-M and noVAD-MM, respectively. Rejection within 1-year post-transplant occurred in 23.3% and 27.3% of the VAD-M and VAD-MM groups, respectively (P < 0.01) and in 21.8% and 23.6% of the noVAD-M and noVAD-MM groups (P = 0.02), respectively. In an adjusted survival analysis, the VAD-MM group showed significantly worse survival than the VAD-M group (P < 0.01), whereas there was no significant difference between the noVAD-M and noVAD-MM groups (P = 0.21).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicated that the combination of VAD bridging and gender-mismatch caused greater rejection and worse survival following a transplant. Further study is necessary to prove comparable post-transplant survival of gender-matched or -mismatched recipients without VAD bridging.

Risk of primary graft dysfunction following lung transplantation in selected adults with connective tissue disease-associated interstitial lung disease

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have reported similarities in long-term outcomes following lung transplantation for connective tissue disease-associated interstitial lung disease (CTD-ILD) and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). However, it is unknown whether CTD-ILD patients are at increased risk of primary graft dysfunction (PGD), delays in extubation, or longer index hospitalizations following transplant compared to IPF patients.

METHODS

We performed a multicenter retrospective cohort study of CTD-ILD and IPF patients enrolled in the Lung Transplant Outcomes Group registry who underwent lung transplantation between 2012 and 2018. We utilized mixed effects logistic regression and stratified Cox proportional hazards regression to determine whether CTD-ILD was independently associated with increased risk for grade 3 PGD or delays in post-transplant extubation and hospital discharge compared to IPF.

RESULTS

A total of 32.7% (33/101) of patients with CTD-ILD and 28.9% (145/501) of patients with IPF developed grade 3 PGD 48-72 hours after transplant. There were no significant differences in odds of grade 3 PGD among patients with CTD-ILD compared to those with IPF (adjusted OR 1.12, 95% CI 0.64-1.97, p = 0.69), nor was CTD-ILD independently associated with a longer post-transplant time to extubation (adjusted HR for first extubation 0.87, 95% CI 0.66-1.13, p = 0.30). However, CTD-ILD was independently associated with a longer post-transplant hospital length of stay (median 23 days [IQR 14-35 days] vs17 days [IQR 12-28 days], adjusted HR for hospital discharge 0.68, 95% CI 0.51-0.90, p = 0.008).

CONCLUSION

Patients with CTD-ILD experienced significantly longer postoperative hospitalizations compared to IPF patients without an increased risk of grade 3 PGD.

Predictive factors of a prolonged length of stay in a community Nursing-Led unit: A retrospective cohort study

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To describe the care provided to patients admitted into a community Nursing-Led inpatient unit and to identify factors predicting a length of stay exceeding an established threshold.

BACKGROUND

Few studies have been conducted to describe the care provided in a Nursing-Led unit. No studies have investigated factors affecting length of stay in these services.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

METHODS

Consecutive patients admitted to a community Nursing-Led unit between 2009-2015 were enrolled. Sociodemographic, medical and nursing care (diagnoses and activities) variables were collected from electronic health records. Descriptive analysis and a backward stepwise logistic regression model were applied. The study followed the STROBE guidelines.

RESULTS

The study enrolled 904 patients (mean age: 77.7 years). The most frequent nursing diagnoses were bathing self-care deficit and impaired physical mobility. The nursing activities most provided were enteral medication administration and vital signs measurement. Approximately 37% of the patients had a length of stay longer than the established threshold. Nine covariates, including being discharged to home, having an impaired memory nursing diagnosis or being treated for advanced wound care, were found to be independent predictors of prolonged length of stay. Variables related to medical conditions did not affect the length-of-stay threshold.

CONCLUSIONS

The length of stay in the community Nursing-Led unit was mainly predicted by conditions related to sociodemographic factors, nursing complexity and functional status. This result confirms that the medical and nursing needs of a community Nursing-Led unit population substantively differ from those of hospitalised acute patients.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

The nursing complexity and related nursing care to be provided may be adopted as a criterion to establish the appropriate length of stay in the community Nursing-Led unit for each individual patient.

The Utility of the Sit-to-Stand Test for Inpatients in the Acute Hospital Setting After Lung Transplantation

OBJECTIVE

Measurement of physical function is important to guide physical therapy for patients post-lung transplantation (LTx). The Sit-to-Stand (STS) test has proven utility in chronic disease, but psychometric properties post-LTx are unknown. The study aimed to assess reliability, validity, responsiveness, and feasibility of the 60-second STS post-LTx.

METHODS

This was a measurement study in 62 inpatients post-LTx (31 acute postoperative; 31 medical readmissions). Interrater reliability was assessed with 2 STS tests undertaken by different assessors at baseline. Known group validity was assessed by comparing STS repetitions in postoperative and medical groups. Content validity was assessed using comparisons to knee extensor and grip strength, measured with hand-held dynamometry. Criterion validity was assessed by comparison of STS repetitions and 6-minute walk distance postoperatively. Responsiveness was assessed using effect sizes over inpatient admission.

RESULTS

Median (interquartile range) age was 62 (56-67) years; time post-LTx was 5 (5-7) days postoperative and 696 (244-1849) days for medical readmissions. Interrater reliability was excellent (intraclass correlation coefficient type 2,1 = 0.96), with a mean learning effect of 2 repetitions. Repetitions were greater for medical at baseline (mean 18 vs 8). More STS repetitions were associated with greater knee extensor strength (postoperative r = 0.57; medical r = 0.47) and 6-minute walk distance (postoperative r = 0.68). Effect sizes were 0.94 and 0.09, with a floor effect of 23% and 3% at baseline (postoperative/medical) improving to 10% at discharge. Patients incapable of attempting a STS test were excluded, reducing generalizability to critical care. Physical rehabilitation was not standardized, possibly reducing responsiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

The 60-second STS demonstrated excellent interrater reliability and moderate validity and was responsive to change postoperatively.

IMPACT

The 60-second STS represents a safe, feasible functional performance tool for inpatients post-LTx. Two tests should be completed at each time point.

Perioperative Considerations Regarding Sex in Solid Organ Transplantation

Sex plays a role in all stages of the organ transplant process, including listing, sex/size matching of organs, complications, graft survival, and mortality. Sex-related differences in organ transplantation are likely multifactorial related to biological and social characteristics. More information is needed to determine how sex-related differences can lead to improved outcomes for future donors and recipients of solid organs. This article provides an overview on the impact of sex on various types of solid organ transplant, including kidney, pancreas, liver, lung, and heart transplants.

Long term survival after lung transplantation: A single center experience

BACKGROUND

There are approximately 2000 lung transplants performed across the United States annually. There is limited data to identify factors predictive of long-term survival.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated 10-year survivors after lung transplant to determine predictors of long-term survival.

METHODS

Data were collected from the United Network for Organ Sharing registry database from a single institution. Inclusion criteria were: patients who received a lung transplant between 1989 and 2005. Descriptive statistics were calculated, and survival outcomes were analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier method.

RESULTS

Three hundred sixty-one patients received a lung transplant between 1989 and 2005, and 77 patients survived at least 10 years (21%). Diagnoses at the time of transplant included: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/emphysema 45 (58.4%), idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis 12 (15.6%), alpha 1 anti-trypsin deficiency 6 (7.8%), cystic fibrosis 4 (5.2%), primary pulmonary hypertension 2 (2.6%), and Eisenmenger's syndrome 1 (1.3%). Seventy-four recipients (96.10%) were Caucasian; 46 (59.74%) were female. Age at the time of transplant ranged from 19 to 67 years (mean 50.8; median 52). Forty-two patients (54.5%) were double lung recipients. Survival ranged from 10.0 to 21.9 years (mean 15.5y; median 15.48y). Forty-two (54.5%) subjects are currently alive; the most common causes of death included: chronic rejection (20%), and infection (17.14%).

CONCLUSIONS

Ten-year survivors were significantly younger, weighed less, and had significantly shorter lengths of hospitalization after transplantation. Bilateral lung transplantation was a significant factor in prolonged survival. Survival also improved with institutional experience.

An Ethical Framework for the Care of Patients with Prolonged Hospitalization Following Lung Transplantation

The lung allocation score system in the United States and several European countries gives more weight to risk of death without transplantation than to survival following transplantation. As a result, centers transplant sicker patients, leading to increased length of initial hospitalization. The care of patients who have accumulated functional deficits or additional organ dysfunction during their prolonged stay can be ethically complex. Disagreement occurs between the transplant team, patients and families, and non-transplant health care professionals over the burdens of ongoing intensive intervention. These cases highlight important ethical issues in organ transplantation, including the nature and requirements of transplant informed consent, the limits of physician prognostication, patient autonomy and decision-making capacity following transplant, obligations to organ donors and to other potential recipients, and the impact of program metrics on individualized recipient care. We outline general ethical principles for the care of lung transplant recipients with prolonged hospitalization and give regulatory, research, and patient-centered recommendations for these cases.

Pulmonary rehabilitation improves survival in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis undergoing lung transplantation

This study was conducted to evaluate whether a pulmonary rehabilitation program (PRP) is independently associated with survival in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) undergoing lung transplant (LTx). This quasi-experimental study included 89 patients who underwent LTx due to IPF. Thirty-two completed all 36 sessions in a PRP while on the waiting list for LTx (PRP group), and 53 completed fewer than 36 sessions (controls). Survival after LTx was the main outcome; invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV), length of stay (LOS) in intensive care unit (ICU) and in hospital were secondary outcomes. Kaplan-Meier curves and Cox regression models were used in survival analyses. Cox regression models showed that the PRP group had a reduced 54.0% (hazard ratio = 0.464, 95% confidence interval 0.222–0.970, p = 0.041) risk of death. A lower number of patients in the PRP group required IMV for more than 24 hours after LTx (9.0% vs. 41.6% p = 0.001). This group also spent a mean of 5 days less in the ICU (p = 0.004) and 5 days less in hospital (p = 0.046). In conclusion, PRP PRP completion halved the risk of cumulative mortality in patients with IPF undergoing unilateral LTx

In-hospital and subsequent mortality among lung transplant recipients with a prolonged initial hospitalization

The care of lung transplant recipients with prolonged index hospitalizations can be ethically complex, with conflicts arising over whether the expected outcomes justify ongoing intensive interventions. There are limited data to guide these conversations. The objective of this study was to evaluate survival to discharge for lung transplant recipients based on length of stay (LOS). This was a retrospective cohort study of adult lung transplant recipients in the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients. For each day of the index hospitalization the mortality rate among patients who survived to that length of stay or longer was calculated. Post-discharge survival was compared in those with and without a prolonged hospitalization (defined as the 97th percentile [>90 days]). Among the 19 250 included recipients, the index hospitalization mortality was 5.4%. Posttransplant stroke and need for dialysis were the strongest predictors of index hospitalization mortality. No individual or combination of available risk factors, however, was associated with inpatient mortality consistently above 50%. Recipients with >90 day index hospitalization had a 28.8% subsequent inpatient mortality. Their 1, 3 and 5 year survival following discharge was 53%, 26%, and 16%. These data provide additional context to goals of care conversations for transplant recipients with prolonged index hospitalizations.

Incidence and variables associated with 30-day mortality after lung transplantation

BACKGROUND

With the introduction of the lung allocation score (LAS), sicker patients are prioritized for lung transplantation (LT). There is a lack of data regarding variables independently associated with 30-day mortality after LT.

METHODS

We queried the UNOS database for adult patients undergoing LT between 1989 and 2014. Patients with dual organ or previous transplantation and those with missing survival data were excluded. Mortality during the first 30 days after LT was the primary outcome variable.

RESULTS

The yearly trends indicate a statistically significant reduction in the 30-day mortality during the study period (P < 0.001, overall mortality: 5.5%) which has continued in the post-LAS era (P = 0. 014, overall mortality: 3.6%). Among patients with 30-day mortality, "primary non-function" (n = 118, 72.8%) was reported as the most common etiology. Transplant indication of vascular diseases, history of non-transplant cardiac or lung surgery, mean pulmonary pressures >35 mm Hg, disabled functional status, ECMO support, high LAS, ischemic time >6 hours, and blunt injury as the mechanism of donor death are independently associated with 30-day mortality.

CONCLUSION

The incidence of early mortality after LT continues to decline in the post-LAS era. Apart from the mechanism of donor death and ischemic time, early mortality appears to be primarily driven by the recipient characteristics.

Pre-kidney transplant lower extremity impairment and transplant length of stay: a time-to-discharge analysis of a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Few objective tests can be performed at admission for kidney transplantation [KT] to discern risk of increased length of stay [LOS], which is important for patient counseling and is associated with increased costs and mortality. The short physical performance battery [SPPB] is an easily administered, potentially modifiable, 3-part test of lower extremity function. SPPB score is associated with longer hospital LOS in older adults, and may provide similar utility in KT recipients given that ESRD is a disease of accelerated aging. The aim of this study was to characterize the association between SPPB-derived lower extremity function and LOS.

METHODS

The SPPB was administered at KT admission in a prospective cohort of 595 recipients (8/2009-6/2016). The independent association between SPPB impairment (score ≤ 10) and LOS was tested with an adjusted conventional generalized gamma parametric survival model.

RESULTS

Impaired recipients experienced longer LOS (median: 10 vs. 8 days; P <  0.001) with the greatest difference in percent discharged on day 10 (impaired: 54.5%, unimpaired: 73.3%). Discharge typically took 13% longer in the impaired group (relative time = 1.13; 95%CI: 1.05, 1.21, P = 0.001). Discharge for impaired recipients compared to unimpaired was least likely at day 5 (hazard ratio = 0.71; 95% CI:0.68, 0.74, P <  0.001). No differences in the SPPB impairment-LOS relationship were found by age (interaction P = 0.74).

CONCLUSIONS

Pre-KT SPPB impairment was independently associated with longer LOS regardless of age, indicating that it is a useful, objective tool for pre-KT risk assessment in younger and older recipients that may help inform discharge planning.

Risk factors for infection after pediatric lung transplantation

Although infection is the leading cause of death in the first year following pediatric lung transplantation, there are limited data on risk factors for early infection. Sepsis remains under-recognized and under-reported in the early post-operative period for lung transplant recipients (LTR). We evaluated the incidence of infection and sepsis, and identified risk factors for infection in the early post-operative period in pediatric LTRs. A retrospective review of medical records of LTRs at a large quaternary-care hospital from January 2009 to March 2016 was conducted. Microbiology results on days 0-7 after transplant were obtained. Sepsis was defined using the 2005 International Pediatric Consensus Conferencecriteria. Risk factors included history of recipient and donor infection, history of multi-drug resistant (MDR) infection, nutritional status, and surgical times. Among the 98 LTRs, there were 22 (22%) with post-operative infection. Prolonged donor ischemic time ≥7 hours, cardiopulmonary bypass(CPB) time ≥340 minutes, history of MDR infection and diagnosis of cystic fibrosis were significantly associated with infection. With multivariable regression analysis, only prolonged donor ischemic time remained significant (OR 4.4, 95% CI: 1.34-14.48). Further research is needed to determine whether processes to reduce donor ischemic time could result in decreased post-transplant morbidity.

Improvement in patient-reported outcomes after lung transplantation is not impacted by the use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation as a bridge to transplantation

OBJECTIVE

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is increasingly used as a bridge to lung transplantation. The impact of preoperative ECMO on health-related quality of life (HRQL) and depressive symptoms after lung transplantation remains unknown, however.

METHODS

In a single-center prospective cohort study, we assessed HRQL and depressive symptoms before and at 3, 6, and 12 months after lung transplantation using the Short Form 12 Physical and Mental Component Scores (SF12-PCS and SF12-MCS), Airway Questionnaire 20-Revised (AQ20R), EuroQol 5D (EQ5D), and Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). Changes in HRQL were quantified by segmented linear mixed-effects models controlling for age, sex, diagnosis, preoperative forced expiratory volume in 1 second, 6-minute walk distance, and Lung Allocation Score. We compared changes in HRQL among subjects bridged with ECMO, subjects hospitalized but not on ECMO, and subjects called in for transplantation as outpatients.

RESULTS

Out of 189 subjects, 17 were bridged to transplantation with ECMO. In all groups, improvements in HRQL following lung transplantation exceeded the minimally clinically important difference using the SF12-PCS, AQ20R, EQ5D, and GDS. HRQL defined by SF12-MCS did not change after transplantation. Improvements were generally similar among the groups, except for EQ5D, which showed a trend toward less benefit in the outpatients, possibly due to their better HRQL before lung transplantation.

CONCLUSIONS

Subjects ill enough to require ECMO as a bridge to lung transplantation appear to achieve similar improvements in HRQL and depressive symptoms as those who do not. It is reassuring to both providers and patients that lung transplantation provides substantial improvements in HRQL, even for those patients who are critically ill in the run up to transplantation.

Noteworthy Literature Published in 2017 for Thoracic Transplantation Anesthesiologists

Thoracic organ transplantation constitutes a significant proportion of all transplant procedures. Thoracic solid organ transplantation continues to be a burgeoning field of research. This article presents a review of remarkable literature published in 2017 regarding perioperative issues pertinent to the thoracic transplant anesthesiologists.

A Comprehensive Risk Score to Predict Prolonged Hospital Length of Stay After Heart Transplantation

BACKGROUND

Prolonged hospital length of stay (PLOS) after heart transplantation increases cost and morbidity. To better inform care, we developed a risk score to identify patients at risk for PLOS after heart transplantation.

METHODS

We queried the United Network for Organ Sharing Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients database for adult patients who underwent isolated heart transplantation from 2003 to 2012. The population was randomly divided into a derivation cohort (80%) and a validation cohort (20%). The outcome of interest was PLOS, defined as a posttransplant hospital length of stay of more than 30 days. Associated univariables (p < 0.20) in the derivation cohort were included in a multivariable model, and a risk index was derived from the adjusted odds ratios of significant covariates.

RESULTS

During the study period, 16,723 patients underwent heart transplantation with an average PLOS of 19 ± 21 days, and 2,020 orthotopic heart transplant recipients (12%) had PLOS. Baseline characteristics were similar between the derivation and validation cohorts. Twenty-four recipient and nine donor variables, cold ischemic time, and center volume were tested as univariables. Seventeen covariates significantly affected PLOS and comprised the prolonged hospitalization after heart transplant risk score, which was stratified into three risk groups. The risk model was subsequently validated, and predicted rates of PLOS correlated well with observed rates (R = 0.79). Rates of PLOS in the validation cohort were 8.3%, 11%, and 22% for low, moderate, and high risk groups, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The risk of PLOS after heart transplantation can be determined at the time of transplant. The prolonged hospitalization after heart transplant score may lead to individualized postoperative management strategies to reduce duration of hospitalization for patients at high risk.

Impaired Renal Function Should Not Be a Barrier to Transplantation in Patients With Cystic Fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have demonstrated an association between pretransplantation renal dysfunction (PRD) and increased mortality after lung transplantation (LT). The purpose of this study was to determine whether PRD impacts survival after LT in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF).

METHODS

We queried the United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) database to identify all adult (≥18 years) recipients with CF who underwent isolated LT from May 4, 2005 to December 31, 2014. We separated recipients into those with and those without PRD (glomerular filtration rate [GFR] ≤60 mL/min). We excluded patients who required dialysis before transplantation. Kaplan-Meier analysis was used to assess unadjusted survival differences. Cox proportional hazards modeling was then performed across 26 variables to assess the risk-adjusted impact of PRD on 1-, 3-, and 5-year mortality.

RESULTS

Isolated LT was performed on 1,830 patients with CF; 17 patients were excluded because of pretransplantation dialysis. Eighty-two of 1,813 patients (4.5%) had PRD (GFR ≤60 mL/min). Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed no survival differences between PRD and non-PRD groups at 1 year (85.3% versus 89.5%; log-rank p = 0.23), 3 years (71.0% versus 72.5%; p = 0.57), or 5 years (63.3% versus 59.8%; p = 0.95). After risk adjustment, PRD was not independently associated with an increased hazard for mortality at 1 year (hazard ratio [HR], 1.38 [95% confidence interval [CI], 0.74-2.58]; p = 0.31), 3 years (HR, 1.44 [95% CI, 0.92-2.24]; p = 0.11), or 5 years (HR, 1.30 [95% CI, 0.86-1.94]; p = 0.29).

CONCLUSIONS

Although PRD has historically served as a relative contraindication to LT, our study is the first to suggest that among CF recipients, PRD was not associated with increased hazard for mortality out to 5 years after LT.

Interaction of pre-transplant recipient characteristics and renal function in lung transplant survival

BACKGROUND

There has been little investigation into the potential interaction of recipient characteristics with the association of pre-transplant renal functions and survival after lung transplantation. In this study we tested the hypothesis that association of pre-transplant renal function and post-transplant mortality varies among recipient subgroups.

METHODS

We queried the United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) database for adult patients (≥18 years of age) undergoing lung transplantation between May 2005 and March 2015. The study population (n = 15,540) was split into 3 groups (90 to 150, 60 to 89.9 and 30 to 59.9 ml/min/1.73 m2) based on the estimated glomerular filtration rate (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration equation) at the time of listing. We utilized multivariable inverse probability weighted Cox proportional hazard models to compare the association of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) groups with mortality among recipient subgroups.

RESULTS

Overall, there was an independent and graded inverse association between the estimated GFR (eGFR) and mortality, with the hazard of mortality significantly rising with listing eGFR <60 ml/min/1.73 m2. The association between low eGFR and mortality was more consistent and stronger for older (>45 years), non-African-American and non-diabetic patients as well as those with low lung allocation score (LAS <40). Among the diagnosis groups, patients with vascular diseases had the strongest association between low eGFR and poor survival. Sensitivity analyses conducted using an alternate equation to estimate the GFR (Modification of Diet in Renal Disease) supported these associations.

CONCLUSIONS

Prognostic significance of pre-transplant renal functions varies significantly among recipient subgroups. It may be appropriate to develop a customized approach toward assessing and interpreting renal function to determine transplant candidacy.

Noteworthy Literature Published in 2016 for Thoracic Organ Transplantation Anesthesiologists

This article is first in the series to review the published literature on perioperative issues in patients undergoing thoracic solid organ transplantations. We present recent literature from 2016 on preoperative considerations, organ preservation, intraoperative anesthesia management, surgical techniques, postoperative complications, and the impact of perioperative management on short- and long-term outcomes that are pertinent to thoracic transplantation anesthesiologists.