Recent Studies Toward the Development of Practical Diets for Shrimp and Their Nutritional Requirements

Eco-friendly and safe alternatives for the valorization of shrimp farming waste

The seafood industry generates waste, including shells, bones, intestines, and wastewater. The discards are nutrient-rich, containing varying concentrations of carotenoids, proteins, chitin, and other minerals. Thus, it is imperative to subject seafood waste, including shrimp waste (SW), to secondary processing and valorization for demineralization and deproteination to retrieve industrially essential compounds. Although several chemical processes are available for SW processing, most of them are inherently ecotoxic. Bioconversion of SW is cost-effective, ecofriendly, and safe. Microbial fermentation and the action of exogenous enzymes are among the significant SW bioconversion processes that transform seafood waste into valuable products. SW is a potential raw material for agrochemicals, microbial culture media, adsorbents, therapeutics, nutraceuticals, and bio-nanomaterials. This review comprehensively elucidates the valorization approaches of SW, addressing the drawbacks of chemically mediated methods for SW treatments. It is a broad overview of the applications associated with nutrient-rich SW, besides highlighting the role of major shrimp-producing countries in exploring SW to achieve safe, ecofriendly, and efficient bio-products.

Simultaneous Optimization of Deacetylation Degree and Molar Mass of Chitosan from Shrimp Waste

Shrimp waste is a valuable source for chitin extraction and consequently for chitosan preparation. In the process of obtaining chitosan, a determining step is the chitin deacetylation. The main characteristic of chitosan is the degree of deacetylation, which must be as high as possible. The molar mass is another important parameter that defines its utilizations, and according to these, high or low molar masses are required. The present study is an attempt to optimize the deacetylation step to obtain chitosan with a high degree of deacetylation and high or low molar mass. The study was carried out based on experimental data obtained in the frame of a central composite design where three working parameters were considered: NaOH concentration, liquid:solid ratio, and process duration. The regression models defined for the degree of deacetylation (DD) and for the mean molar mass (MM) of chitosan powders were used in the formulation of optimization problems. The objectives considered were simultaneous maximum DD and maximum/minimum MM for the final chitosan samples. For these purposes, multiobjective optimization problems were formulated and solved using genetic algorithms implemented in Matlab®. The multiple optimal solutions represented by trade-offs between the two objectives are presented for each case.

WITHDRAWN: Unlimited possibilities to use Сladophora (Chlorophyta, Ulvophyceae, Cladophorales) biomass in agriculture and aquaculture with profit for the environment and humanity

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Dietary supplementations modulate the physiological parameters, fatty acids profile and the growth of red claw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus)

An optimal diet is an important factor for the proper growth and health of crustaceans. However, the regulation of antioxidant activity and non-specific immunity related to the consumption of feed additives has not been studied in RC-crayfish. Triplicate groups of 20 crayfish/tank (36.72 ± 0.70 g) fed with a basal diet and sixteen experimental diets that contained five feed additives with four grade levels (40, 160, 240 and 320 mg/kg vitamin E, 2, 4, 6 and 8 g/kg nucleotides, 2, 4, 6 and 8 g/kg Haematococcus pluvialis, 5, 10, 15 and 20 g/kg arachidonic acid and 2.5, 5, 10 and 15 g/kg yeast extract) on physiological parameters, fatty acids profile and growth of Cherax quadricarinatus for a period of 70 days by using orthogonal array method (L16 4⁵ ). The results showed that the antioxidants activity in the haemolymph and hepatopancreas were both higher in crayfish fed with diets NO. 9 to 12 than others. Also, all the diets except diets NO. 13 to 16 showed lower free radicals contents than the control group. Similarly, significantly higher non-specific immune parameters were observed in the hepatopancreas of crayfish supplementations than those fed a control diet. Biochemical parameters related to protein profile in haemolymph increased in diets NO. 9 to 12 and then decreased in control and diets NO. 13 to 16, while the highest biochemical parameters related to lipid profile except HDL-c contents in haemolymph were observed in crayfish fed the control diet. Fatty acid composition in the hepatopancreas, muscle and ovary of RC-crayfish was significantly influenced by using the combination of Vit E, NT, H. pluvialis and YP compared to the control group. Compared to all treatments, RC-crayfish fed with diets NO. 2 and 12 had significantly stimulated higher growth performance and feed utilisation. Overall, our results suggest that diets supplemented with Vit E level of 240 mg/kg, in combination with 8 g/kg NT, 4 g/kg, H. pluvialis, 5 g/kg ARA and 10 g/kg YP are the promising treatments to increase antioxidants activity, non-specific immune response, fatty acids composition and growth of RC-crayfish. However, high dietary supplementations level can reduce antioxidants activity, immunity and inhibit growth.

Effects of dietary Clostridium autoethanogenum protein on the growth, disease resistance, intestinal digestion, immunity and microbiota structure of Litopenaeus vannamei reared at different water salinities

The shortage of fishmeal (FM) resources limits the healthy development of aquaculture. Developing new protein sources to replace FM in aquatic feeds is an effective measure to alleviate this situation. However, the application effect of new protein sources is greatly affected by water salinity, which is an important parameter of aquaculture. In this study, the growth, disease resistance, and intestinal digestion, immunity, and microbiota structure of Litopenaeus vannamei (initial weight: 0.38 ± 0.01 g) fed on Clostridium autoethanogenum protein (CAP) or not at three different water salinities (15 ‰, 30 ‰, and 45 ‰) were compared, aiming to explore the effects of dietary CAP on shrimp when suffering different salinity stresses. The results showed that the growth performance, feed utilization, and survival rate (SR) after pathogen challenge of L. vannamei could be significantly improved by dietary CAP when compared with the control at the same salinity and they were also significantly affected by salinity changes when L. vannamei was fed on the same protein source. With the increase in salinity, obvious upregulation was observed in the activities and gene expression of digestive enzymes both in L. vannamei fed on FM and CAP, with significantly higher levels in L. vannamei fed on CAP than in those fed on FM at the same salinity. Meanwhile, the expression levels of immune genes in the CAP group were significantly higher than those in the FM group at different salinities. The intestinal microbiota analysis showed that CAP could increase the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria and decrease the relative abundance of harmful bacteria in the intestine of L. vannamei at the phylum, family, and genus levels, and it was more affected by salinity changes when compared with FM. Besides, the changes in salinity and protein sources led to different changes in the intestinal microflora function of L. vannamei. In sum, this study indicated that CAP could improve the growth, disease resistance, digestive capacity, and intestinal microflora of L. vannamei with a much more intense immune response and enhance its ability to cope with salinity stress.

Effects of dietary threonine on growth and immune response of oriental river prawn (Macrobrachium nipponense)

A 70-day feeding trial was conducted to ascertain the effects of threonine on immune response of juvenile oriental river prawn (Macrobrachium nipponense). Six isonitrogen and isolipidic feeds were formulated according to levels of dietary threonine (0.35%, 0.79%, 1.18%, 1.67%, 2.08% and 2.48% respectively). The juvenile prawns were divided into six groups with four replicates, and stocked into 24 tanks with 50 prawns per tank (initial weight 0.20 ± 0.02 g). The results showed a significant increasing trend of final body weight, specific growth rate, protein efficiency ratio, and weight gain rate when threonine levels increased to 1.67% (P < 0.05). However, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, and whole-body lipid composition significantly decreased as threonine levels in the feed increased up to 1.67% (P < 0.05). Moreover, haemolymph N-urea content was significantly lowest at 1.67% threonine level (P < 0.05), whereas glucose was highest at 0.79% followed by 1.67% of threonine levels in the feeds. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) enzyme activities were significantly decreased by an imbalance (except 1.67%) of threonine in the feed (P < 0.05). Activities of Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and albumen (ALB) were not significantly affected by threonine in the feed (P > 0.05). Excessive dietary threonine level (2.48%) significantly activated haemolymph catalase (CAT) activity (P < 0.05), whereas malondialdehyde (MDA) content was significantly affected by deficient (0.35% and 0.79%) dietary threonine levels (P < 0.05). Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) activity and haemolymph complement component 4 (C4) content were significantly decreased by deficient levels of threonine in the feed (P < 0.05). Excess threonine concentration significantly down-regulated Toll, Dorsal, Relish, and heat shock protein 60 (Hsp60) gene expressions in the hepatopancreas of M. nipponense (P < 0.05), while all genes were significantly up-regulated by the optimal (1.67%) threonine level (P < 0.05). The threonine level at which maximum specific growth rate of M. nipponense occurred was estimated by second degree polynomial regression analysis as 1.65% of threonine level, equivalent to 4.44% dry weight bases of protein in the feed.

Digestibilidad aparente de materia seca, proteína y carbohidratos de la dieta con ensilado biológico de harina de maíz en Cryphiops (C.) caementarius

El objetivo del estudio fue determinar la digestibilidad aparente de la materia seca, proteína y carbohidratos de la dieta con ensilado biológico de harina de maíz en Cryphiops (C.) caementarius. Camarones adultos (4.50 a 7.20 cm de longitud total), se colectaron del río Pativilca (Lima, Perú) y en laboratorio se mantuvieron en recipientes individuales instalados dentro de seis acuarios (cuatro camarones por acuario). La dieta control fue sin ensilado y para la dieta experimental se reemplazó el 75% de la harina de maíz por el ensilado biológico de harina de maíz; ambas dietas tuvieron 1% de óxido crómico como marcador inerte. Los camarones fueron alimentados dos veces por día (40% a las 08:00 h y 60% a las 18:00 h) con el 6% del peso húmedo, durante 10 días. Para la colección de heces, los camarones fueron trasladados a un sistema de caja cribada (12 compartimentos) instalada dentro de un acuario. La digestibilidad aparente se determinó en base seca. Los camarones alimentados con la dieta con ensilado biológico de harina de maíz tuvieron altos coeficientes de digestibilidad aparente de carbohidratos (95.69%), proteína cruda (80.02%) y materia seca (76.19%), que aquellos alimentados con la dieta sin ensilado (p<0.05) que fue de 93.48, 78.21 y 74.36%, respectivamente. Los camarones adultos digieren con eficiencia los carbohidratos de la dieta con ensilado biológico de harina de maíz, en vez de la proteína de dicha dieta.

Use of Pelleted Diets in Commercially Farmed Decapods during Juvenile Stages: A Review

The increasing market demand for decapods has led to a considerable interest in cultivating decapod species at a larger scale. Following the development of hatchery technologies, most research has focused on the development of formulated feeds for commercially farmed decapods once they enter the juvenile stages. The use of formulated feed for decapods at a commercial scale is still in the early stages. This is probably because of the unique feeding behavior that decapods possess: being robust, slow feeders and bottom dwellers, their feeding preferences change during the transition from pelagic larvae to benthic juveniles as their digestive systems develop and become more complex. The current practice of decapod aquaculture involves the provision of juveniles with food such as natural diet, live feed, and formulated feed. Knowledge of nutrient requirements enables diets to be better formulated. By manipulating the levels of proteins and lipids, a formulated feed can be expected to lead to optimal growth in decapods. At the same time, the pellet's physical characteristics are important factors to be considered upon formulating commercially farmed decapod feeds, considering the unique feeding behavior of the decapod. However, most published studies on decapod nutrition lack data on the physical characteristics of the feed types. Thus, it is difficult to establish a standard feed formulation that focuses on the physical pellet properties. Moreover, careful consideration must be given to the feeding behavior of species, as decapods are known as bottom feeders and are robust in terms of handling feed. Information on the pellet forms, diet composition, and unique feeding behaviors in commercially farmed decapods is gathered to suggest potential better formulated diets that can optimize growth and reproduction. Thus, the purpose of this review is to summarize the information that has been published to date and to come up with suggestions on ways to improve the feed formulation in decapods that comply with their feeding behavior and nutrient requirements. Further research is needed to explore the potential of the pelleted feed at the adult stage so the decapod can take full advantage of the nutrients present in the pellets.

Feeding Behaviour and Bioavailability of Essential Amino Acids in Shrimp Penaeus monodon Fed Fresh and Leached Fishmeal and Fishmeal-Free Diets

Simple Summary

While success has been achieved with replacing fishmeal entirely in diets for whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, giant tiger prawn Penaeus monodon still requires fishmeal for optimum culture performance. Crystalline amino acid (CAA) supplementation is becoming popular in shrimp feed formulation and is needed in low fishmeal diets as common alternative protein sources are typically deficient in essential amino acids, such as methionine and lysine. Furthermore, the slow feeding behaviour of shrimp compared to other cultured aquatic species means that feeds can lose specific nutrients before they are consumed. In particular, highly soluble CAA are prone to leaching. In this study, we examined the feeding behaviour, CAA leaching loss and AA uptake in large Penaeus monodon juveniles through a series of short-term experiments using a terrestrial meal-based formulation (TM) enriched with CAA and a traditional fishmeal-based formulation (FM). Feeding behaviour and nutrient bioavailability was found to be similar for the two diets. However, leaching over as little as 60 min had a major impact on AA absorption for the TM diet. The growth implications associated with leaching losses need to be investigated. However, the results indicate the need for careful feeding management as increased reliance on CAA for P. monodon culture could lead to suboptimal nutrition.

Abstract

The complete replacement of fishmeal with terrestrial meals did not have a negative impact on the attractiveness, palatability, and apparent digestibility of the formulation. Shrimp were found on average to eat more and have similar appetite revival on the terrestrial meal-based formulation (TM) diet compared to the traditional fishmeal-based formulation (FM) diet. However, methionine (Met) and lysine (Lys) leached out rapidly from the TM diet, and as a result, this initially overfortified diet showed lower levels of those AA in comparison to FM after 60 min immersion. Both dietary Lys and Met were sub-optimal in TM within 120 min of immersion, whereas in comparison, the FM diet supplied consistent levels of EAA for up to 240 min immersion. Nonetheless, shrimp fed fresh TM had significantly higher peak haemolymph concentrations at 30 and 60 min for total AA, Met, and Lys than FM-fed shrimp. The over-supply of CAA far compensated leaching losses, and CAA were well absorbed and used by the shrimp within 120 min, with no obvious signs of asynchronous absorption of CAA to protein-bound AA. However, shrimp fed the TM diet that had leached out for 60 min, had haemolymph concentrations of Met and Lys that were only 41% and 44% of the ones on fresh feed respectively, while there was a negligible effect of leaching on FM. This study provides further insight into the feeding behaviour and bioavailability of dietary amino acids for P. monodon juveniles.

Palatability Enhancement Potential of Hermetia illucens Larvae Protein Hydrolysate in Litopenaeus vannamei Diets

Marine feed ingredients derived from cephalopods (e.g., squid) and crustaceans (e.g., krill) are commercially used to improve the palatability of shrimp diets. Increase in global demand for shrimps has resulted in overfishing of these marine organisms and is a matter of concern. Insect protein hydrolysate could be a sustainable alternative for the possible replacement of these marine feed ingredients. During this study, four formulations: diet A (control: not containing any palatability enhancer), diet B (containing squid meal and krill oil), diet C (containing 1% insect protein hydrolysate), and diet D (containing 2% insect protein hydrolysate) were tested for (1) time required by first subject to begin feeding (time to strike) and (2) palatability in Litopenaeus vannamei. Additionally, the chemical composition of all four diet formulations was also analyzed. Results indicate that all diets had similar crude composition. The major essential amino acids in all diets were leucine and lysine, whereas eicosapentaenoic acid was the major omega-3 fatty acid in all diets. There were no significant differences between the mean time to strike for all the tested formulations. Palatability of tested formulations was found in the following order: diet D > diet C > diet B = diet A (p < 0.05), indicating that addition of squid meal and krill oil has no effect on palatability in comparison to control, whereas inclusion of insect protein hydrolysates significantly improves the palatability of formulations. Palatability enhancement potential of insect protein hydrolysate could be attributed to the high free amino acid content and water solubility in comparison to squid meal.

Effects of graded levels of mineral mixtures (Aquamin® and Agrimin®) supplemented diets on growth, survival, proximate composition, and carcass mineralization of juvenile freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium malcolmsonii (H Milne-Edwards 1844)

The present study investigated the effects of Aquamin® mineral mixture (AQMM) and Agrimin® mineral mixture (AGMM) supplemented diets on growth and chemical composition of juvenile freshwater prawn Macrobrachium malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Edwards, 1844). Experimental diets containing 6 different AQMM levels (Trial 1: 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5%) and 6 different AGMM levels (Trial 2: 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5%) were formulated to feed juvenile prawn [initial body weight of 0.82 ± 0.05 g (Trial 1) and 1.24 ± 0.03 g (Trial 2)] for 60 days. Prawn fed diets containing 1.0% of AQMM and AGMM showed significantly increased (P < 0.05) survival rate, weight gain, specific growth rate, protein efficiency ratio, edible flesh weight, and proximate composition (moisture, crude protein, crude fat, and ash), while feed intake and feed conversion ratio were significantly decreased (P < 0.05). Whereas, 1.5-2.5% of AQMM- and AGMM-supplemented diets fed prawn showed a reverse trend when comparing other groups. Moreover, the minerals (macro elements: Ca, P, Mg, Na, and K; trace elements: Cu, Zn, and Fe) were significantly increased (P < 0.05) in the carcass of prawn when fed with 2.5% AQMM- and AGMM-supplemented diets. The present results suggest that the optimal dietary supplementation of AQMM and AGMM at a concentration of up to 1.06 and 1.02%, respectively (based on polynomial regression analysis), improved growth and enhanced the crude protein level of juvenile prawn.

Assessment of the ecological and human health risks from metals in shrimp aquaculture environments in Central Java, Indonesia

The occurrence and contamination level of seven important toxic metals (Cd, Cu, Co, Cr, Hg, Pb, and Zn) and three additional metals (Al, Fe, and Mn) in the water, sediment, and shrimp muscle in aquaculture areas located in Central Java, Indonesia, were investigated. The results suggest that the majority of metals have higher concentrations in the inlet followed by the outlet and ponds. Cd dissolved in the waters exhibited the highest level in Pekalongan (3.15 ± 0.33 μg L^-1). Although Pb was not detected in the water, it was detected in the sediment, and the concentration ranged from 7.6 to 15.40 mg kg^-1 dw. In general, the heavy metal concentrations in the sediments were found to decrease in the sequence Al > Fe > Mn > Zn > Cr > Cu > Co > Pb. Concentrations below the effects range low level based on the Canadian sediment quality guidelines were found for Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn, whereas moderate sediment pollution (25-75 mg kg^-1 dw) was observed for Cr (all regions), Cu (except in the Pekalongan region), and Zn (Brebes and Tegal regions) according to the US EPA standard. The status of the waters was evaluated by calculating a pollution index derived mostly from Mn and Zn. The ecological risk (geoaccumulation index (I_geo), contamination factor (CF), pollution load index (PLI), and potential ecological risk index (ERI)) determined in the sediments indicated that all studied areas had low to moderate contamination. The concentrations of all metals in shrimp were generally below the maximum limits for seafood, except for Zn (in all stations), Pb, and Cr (Tegal and Pekalongan). The hazard index values for metals indicated that consuming shrimp would not have adverse effects on human health.

Impact of imidacloprid on the nutritional quality of adult black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon)

Neonicotinoid insecticides, including imidacloprid, are increasingly being used to control insect pests in agricultural and urban areas, and are often detected in aquatic environments. The effects of neonicotinoids on non-target insects have been investigated with respect to behavioural, biochemical, physiological and population-level responses, but information of their effects on crustaceans is limited. This study investigated the adverse effects of both acute and chronic exposure to sublethal concentrations of imidacloprid on the nutritional quality of adult Black Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon). Shrimp were continually exposed to imidacloprid in water (5 μg L^-1 and 30 μg L^-1), or through their food (12.5 μg g^-1 and 75 μg g^-1), for the entire exposure period. Imidacloprid concentrations in water and residues in tissues were quantified using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry after solid-phase extraction and QuEChER extraction respectively. Within 4 days, shrimp accumulated imidacloprid at up to 0.350 μg imidacloprid per g body weight from water and food exposure. Chronic exposure resulted in a significant decrease in body weight and total lipid content. Fatty acid composition in exposed shrimp was modified relative to controls. Overall, these results demonstrate that neonicotinoid exposure could lead to nutritional deficiency, which has implications for the productivity and food quality of shrimp.

Determination of 4-Hexylresorcinol in Shrimp Samples by Solid Phase Extraction Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

A method for the rapid determination of 4-hexylresorcinol (4-HR) residue in shrimp by solid phase extraction (SPE) ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was established. 4-HR was extracted twice with methanol, and the extract was formulated into methanol-water solution (1:1). After being cleaned up and concentrated by a PRIME HLB solid phase extraction column, the sample was analyzed by UPLC-MS/MS and quantitatively determined by an external standard method. The separation was performed with a gradient system consisting of water and acetonitrile as the mobile phase. Monitoring was performed by electrospray ionization (ESI) in negative ion mode using multiple ion reaction monitoring (MRM). Good linearity was obtained in the concentration range of 1.0⁻100.0 μg/L, with correlation coefficients larger than 0.999. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.25 μg/kg and the limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.80 μg/kg. The average recoveries of 4-HR at spiked concentrations of 2.40, 6.40 and 16 μg/kg ranged from 81.35% to 94.68% with the relative standard deviations (n = 6) from 3.57% to 6.86%. The results showed that the method is simple, fast, sensitive, reliable, and reproducible; thus, it could be used as a rapid confirmation and quantitative analysis method of 4-HR residue in aquatic products.