Colostrum immunoglobulins: Processing, preservation and application aspects

Characterization of lyophilized equine colostrum

Foals require maternal colostrum in the first hours of life to prevent failure of transfer of passive immunity (FTIP). Innovative storage methods such as lyophilization may enable conservation of colostrum immunoglobulins by a differentiated process of dehydration. The current study aimed to compare the quality of equine colostrum after freezing and after the lyophilization process. Thirty-one pregnant Quarter Horse mares were used. The IgG concentration of frozen and lyophilized colostrum was determined by simple radial immunodiffusion (SRID) and Brix refractometry. The physical-chemical composition (pH, total protein (TP), fat, lactose, salts, total solids (TS), and density) of the samples was evaluated and the lyophilized colostrum reconstitution test was performed. There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in the variables IgG, fat, lactose, salts, TS, density, and pH between samples measured before and after lyophilization. There was a significant difference (P < 0.05) between the Brix average and the TP of the frozen and lyophilized colostrum samples. Lyophilization resulted in a small reduction (6.55%) in the IgG concentration measured by SRID. A strong positive correlation was observed between colostrum density and IgG concentration by SRID (r = 0.76) and between Brix and IgG concentration by SRID (r = 0.77). In the reconstitution test, the lyophilized colostrum was easily rehydrated in water, with full dilution, and remained stable. Lyophilization could be an alternative for the conservation of mare colostrum, since it is a very efficient process for retaining the physicochemical characteristics of the product, with minimal loss, particularly of IgG.

Characterization of Physicochemical and Sensory Properties of Cheeses Added with Bovine Colostrum

The objective of this study was to develop fresh and matured cheeses with different bovine colostrum levels, aiming to promote the consumption of dairy products with the addition of colostrum. Four different cheese formulations were produced with a mixture of 0:100, 15:85, 20:80, and 25:75, bovine colostrum:milk (v:v), and aged for 0, 10, 20, and 40 days. Milk, colostrum, and fresh and matured cheeses were submitted to physicochemical characterization. Moreover, microbiological quality, yield, texture profile, color, and sensory acceptance of cheese samples were evaluated. Colostrum supplementation favored low acidity, high moisture, a pH range of 5.0-6.2, and water activity of 0.94-99. Sensory attributes and overall evaluation of all cheese formulations achieved an Acceptability Index above 70, indicating good acceptability. Since cheese with colostrum presented the potential to be used as human food, assessing the presence of colostrum bioactive components in those dairy products is a promising goal for further research.

Invited review: Bovine colostrum, a promising ingredient for humans and animals-Properties, processing technologies, and uses

Mammalian colostrum, known as "liquid gold," is considered a valuable source of essential nutrients, growth factors, probiotics, prebiotics, antibodies, and other bioactive compounds. Precisely for this reason, bovine colostrum (BC) is an emerging ingredient for the feed, food, and pharmaceutical industries, being nowadays commercially available in a variety of forms in several countries. Moreover, quite a large number of functional foods and supplements for athletes, human medicines, pet nutrition plans, and complementary feed for some livestock categories, such as piglets and calves, contain BC. The amount of BC yielded by a cow after calving represents approximately 0.5% of the yearly output in dairy breeds. For its nutritional properties and low availability, BC is characterized by a greater market value and an increasing demand compared with other by-products of the dairy sector. However, information regarding the market size of BC for the food and pharmaceutical industries, as well as future developments and perspectives, is scarcely available in the scientific literature. This lack can be attributed to industrial secrecy as well as to the relatively small scale of the BC business when compared with other dairy products, which makes the BC market limited, specific, and intended for a restricted audience. From a legal perspective, regulations assign BC to the large family of milk-derived powders; thus, collecting specific production data, as well as import-export trend information, is not straightforward and can result in unprecise estimates. Given that the interest in BC is increasing in different fields, it is important to have an overview of the production steps and of pros and cons of this emerging ingredient. The present narrative review discloses why BC has started to be considered a product rather than a by-product of the dairy industry. Moreover, the present document aims to summarize the existing methodologies used to assess BC quality in terms of immunoglobulin concentration, the different applications of BC in the industry, and the BC processing technologies. Finally, a panoramic view of the current international market is provided for the first time for this dairy product.

Effects of different protectants on the IgY content and physico-chemical properties of spray-dried egg yolk powder

BACKGROUND

Egg yolk powder (EYP) with high immunoglobulin of yolk (IgY) content and good solubility is in great demand in the market of functional foods. In this article, the properties of spray-dried EYP with the addition of five protectants (maltodextrin, trehalose, mannitol, maltitol and sucrose) were investigated.

RESULTS

All the protectants increased IgY activity and solubility of EYP. Among them, EYP with maltodextrin displayed the highest activity of IgY (27.11 mg/g), the highest solubility (66.39%) and the lowest surface hydrophobicity. Moreover, the average particle size of EYP with maltodextrin was the smallest (9.78 μm). The egg yolk particles obtained by adding the protectants are more uniformly distributed and have smaller particle size. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the structural integrity of the proteins, indicating that the protectants addition enhanced the hydrogen bonding forces between the EYP protein molecules.

CONCLUSION

The addition of protectants can significantly improve the IgY content, solubility and structural stability of EYP. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Colostrum Composition, Characteristics and Management for Buffalo Calves: A Review

In this review, the composition, characteristics, and management of dairy buffalo calves were examined and compared with bovines. The neonatal period is critical for buffalo calves and is characterized by a high mortality rate (more than 40%). The early intake of high-quality colostrum (IgG > 50 mg/mL) is the one way to improve the immune system of calves (serum IgG > 10 mg/mL after 12 h), thus increasing their chances of survival. Mainly in intensive farms, the availability of high-quality colostrum is necessary; thus, good quality colostrum is often stored to provide newborn calves which cannot be fed by their mothers. Also, the manipulation of the immunological status of animals through vaccination has been depicted since the quality of colostrum tended to be influenced by vaccination against pathogens. Buffalo breeding is constantly expanding in Italy, mainly thanks to the Mozzarella cheese production that represents the excellence of the "Made in Italy" and is exported worldwide. Indeed, high calf mortality rates directly affect the profitability of the business. For these reasons, the aim of this review was to examine specific research on buffalo colostrum that, compared with other species, are scarce. Improving the knowledge of buffalo colostrum, in terms of characteristics and management, is critical to guarantee buffalo newborns' health in order to reduce their mortality rate. Importantly, considering the knowledge on cattle valid also for buffalo is a widespread, and often erroneous, habit in several fields, including colostrum feeding. Therefore, the two species were compared in this review.

Review: Feeding strategies for rearing replacement dairy goats - from birth to kidding

Goat kid rearing is a key profit driver and the cornerstone of future herd productivity in dairy systems. As goat kids get older, and progress from liquid (i.e., colostrum, milk) to solid feed (i.e., concentrate, hay, pasture), there is a reduction not only in feed cost but also in labour cost, disease susceptibility and mortality rates. Hence, research on rearing dairy goats has traditionally focused on improving early neonatal performance. However, recent research reveals that early-life nutrition may have long-term effects, and consequently, impact the lifetime productive performance and health of dairy goats. Therefore, this literature review has collected research on the various aspects of rearing replacement dairy goat kids in different production systems. It summarises research on areas such as colostrum management (i.e., colostrum quality, time, volume and frequency of colostrum feeding), liquid feeding in preweaned kids (i.e., maternal suckling vs artificial, restricted vs unrestricted), weaning strategies (i.e., abrupt vs step-down), and postweaning to postpubertal nutrition in replacement dairy goats, whilst highlighting gaps in the existing literature, and areas where it would be beneficial to refine and validate current recommendations. Such information can be used in the development of management plans to maximise the benefits of early-life nutrition on the long-term productivity of dairy goats.

Nanoemulsion: A novel delivery approach for thermosensitive IgG on inhibiting milk fat oxidation

IgG, a biologically active substance in bovine colostrum, is easily inactivated during heat treatment and edible process to lose its biological activity. Nanoemulsion can effectively protect IgG to maintain its biological activity from injurious treatment. In this study, a food-grade nanoemulsion system was developed to protect IgG from heat and acid damage. It can be found that the residual rate of nanoemulsion-protected IgG reaches 87.1 % after 10 min at 72 °C. After 5 min at 82 °C, the residual rate of IgG in nanoemulsion was 18.7 % higher than that in PBS. In the simulated gastric fluid at pH 2.0, the residual rate of IgG in the nanoemulsion reacted for 4 h was 21.5 % higher than that in PBS. It indicated that nanoemulsion system can improve the heat and acid resistance of IgG compared with others, which is attributed to the lowest water activity of nanoemulsion. The contents of hydroperoxide and malondialdehyde in the milk after storage for 72 h with nanoemulsion-protected IgG were 0.12 meq/kg and 0.04 mg/kg, respectively, less than that of PBS-protected IgG. IgG is protected by nanoemulsion can effectively protect its activity during processing, which provides a theoretical basis for its direct application in liquid milk.

Preparative separation of immunoglobulins from bovine colostrum by continuous divergent-flow electrophoresis

Immunoglobulins in bovine colostrum were separated and fractionated from other proteins using the method and instrumentation developed in our laboratory. The proposed separation was based on bidirectional isotachophoresis/moving boundary electrophoresis with electrofocusing of the analytes in a pH gradient from 3.9 to 10.1. The preparative instrumentation included the trapezoidal non-woven fabric that served as separation space with divergent continuous flow. The defatted and casein precipitate-free colostrum supernatant was loaded directly into the instrument without any additional colostrum pre-preparation. Immunoglobulin G was fractionated from other immune proteins such as bovine serum albumin, β-lactoglobulin, and α-lactalbumin, and was continuously collected in separated fractions over 3 h. The fractions were further processed, and isolated immunoglobulin G in the liquid fractions was confirmed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and by re-focusing in gel isoelectric focusing. Separated immunoglobulin G was detected in seven fractions by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with a gradually decreased concentration in the fractions. Re-focusing of the proteins in the fractions by gel isoelectric focusing revealed multiple separated zones of immunoglobulin G with the isoelectric point values covering the range from 5.4 to 7.2. Each fraction contained distinct zones with gradually increased isoelectric point values and decreased concentrations from fraction to fraction.

Effects of freezing storage on the stability of maternal cellular and humoral immune components in porcine colostrum

The placental structure of sows is epitheliochorial and prevents maternal serum immunoglobulin transfer to the fetus; therefore, the piglet relies on the ingestion of colostrum to acquire passive immunity. Colostral antibody-mediated and cell-mediated immunity contribute to immunity in piglets. However, little is known about the effects of freezing at -20 °C on colostral immune components during short-term storage, whether this will somehow compromise the acquisition of passive immunity of newborn piglets fed with this colostrum and the humoral immunity in porcine colostrum, and to possible shifts in immunological levels in colostrum collections during the colostral period. Based on the average concentration of immunoglobulin, frozen and fresh colostrum did not differ significantly. Overall, there were no storage differences in total macrophages, granulocytes, and NK cells. However, the frozen colostrum presented T lymphocyte subsets and B lymphocytes significantly lower than the fresh colostrum (p ≤ 0.05). Therefore, to sustain higher piglet survival rates, B cells may be a selective strategy to ensure immune defense to neonatal piglets. According to our findings, colostrum can be stored by freezing at -20 °C for up to 30 days and surplus porcine colostrum can be collected from the sow up to eight hours after the start of farrowing.

Suitability of Goat Colostrum to Produce a Fermented Yogurt-Type Product

The aim of this study was to investigate the potential use of goat colostrum to produce a yogurt-type product as a novel functional dairy food. Four batches of fermented goat colostrum (GCY) were produced using fermented goat milk (GMY) as a reference. Physicochemical, mechanical, and microbial characteristics of cold storage fermented products were evaluated in a weekly basis for 28 days. Sensory analysis was applied to detect potential differences between products and to evaluate the acceptance of GCY by consumers. Results indicate that colostrum showed higher coagulation times than goat milk (480 vs. 350 min to reach pH 4.6). In general, GCY showed a higher protein and fat content and similar features than GMY for most quality parameters, which were highly stable along time. Sensory evaluation led to significant differences between products related to their color and taste. The consumer acceptance test, using a 5 point-Likert scale, showed an overall acceptance of 3.90 ± 0.79 for GCY, with aroma and consistency being the sensory attributes having highest ratings (4.30 ± 0.80 and 4.20 ± 0.96, respectively). Therefore, fermenting goat colostrum with yogurt specific starters could be an interesting alternative to make use of surplus colostrum on farms, allowing for the diversification of commercial goat milk products with potential health benefits for the consumer.

A review of bovine colostrum preservation techniques

Preservation of colostrum for neonatal dairy calves has seldom been seldom in recent years, much of the peer reviewed literature having been published in the 1970s and 1980s. First milking colostrum is high in bioactive immune enhancers such as immunoglobulins, lactoferrins, lysozymes and cytokines and is vital to confer passive immunity to newborn dairy calves to promote their health, welfare and future productivity. Bovine colostrum is advisedly restricted from the bulk milk supply for the first 8 milkings post calving due to high somatic cell counts and the risk of antimicrobial residues. As such, many producers refer to 'colostrum' as not only the first milking post calving, but also the aformentioned 'transition' milk. Colostrum is preserved in order to protect supply for feeding when production may be poor or where there is a glut of colostrum such as in seasonal calving systems. There are multiple reasons for newborn calves not to have access to their dam's colostrum, including multiple births, acute mastitis or maladapted maternal behaviour, especially in first lactation heifers. Shortages in colostrum may also be precipitated by purposeful discarding of colostrum from cows infected with Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis and Mycoplasma bovis. Broadly, colostrum may be preserved using low temperature (refrigeration or freezing) or chemical preservatives. The aim of this scoping review article was to identify options for preservation and gaps in research and to propose best practice for colostrum preservation.

Effect of high hydrostatic pressure processing on the structure, functionality, and nutritional properties of food proteins: A review

Proteins are important food ingredients that possess both functional and nutritional properties. High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) is an emerging nonthermal food processing technology that has been subject to great advancements in the last two decades. It is well established that pressure can induce changes in protein folding and oligomerization, and consequently, HHP has the potential to modify the desired protein properties. In this review article, the research progress over the last 15 years regarding the effect of HHP on protein structures, as well as the applications of HHP in modifying protein functionalities (i.e., solubility, water/oil holding capacity, emulsification, foaming and gelation) and nutritional properties (i.e., digestibility and bioactivity) are systematically discussed. Protein unfolding generally occurs during HHP treatment, which can result in increased conformational flexibility and the exposure of interior residues. Through the optimization of HHP and environmental conditions, a balance in protein hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity may be obtained, and therefore, the desired protein functionality can be improved. Moreover, after HHP treatment, there might be greater accessibility of the interior residues to digestive enzymes or the altered conformation of specific active sites, which may lead to modified nutritional properties. However, the practical applications of HHP in developing functional protein ingredients are underutilized and require more research concerning the impact of other food components or additives during HHP treatment. Furthermore, possible negative impacts on nutritional properties of proteins and other compounds must be also considered.

Nutritional and physicochemical quality of formulations based on colostrum and bovine whey

The objective of this study was to investigate the nutritional quality of bovine colostrum and whey mixtures. Five whey with bovine colostrum formulations were prepared (90:10; 80:20; 70:30; 60:40 and 50:50 whey:colostrum v:v) to be subjected to low-temperature pasteurization (63°C to 65°C for 30 minutes) and freeze-drying. The samples underwent chemical composition characterization, fatty acid profile analysis, determination of contamination by Enterobacteriaceae, pH, and Dornic acidity measurements before and after vat pasteurization. The amount of protein, fat, total solids, defatted dry extract, Brix and density increased as the bovine colostrum concentration increased. The level of saturated fatty acids and the thrombogenicity and atherogenicity indices reduced, while unsaturated fatty acids increased as the level of added bovine colostrum increased. The low-temperature pasteurization of the formulations was possible and effective, eliminating contamination by Enterobacteriaceae in the samples. Mixing bovine colostrum and whey reduced the colostrum viscosity, allowing a successful pasteurization procedure. Due to colostrum composition, the formulations yielded a higher nutritional value when compared to whey alone. The parameters applied in the formulation of mixtures of bovine colostrum and whey resulted in valuable ingredients for preparing novel dairy products.

Effectiveness of visible - Near infrared spectroscopy coupled with simulated annealing partial least squares analysis to predict immunoglobulins G, A, and M concentration in bovine colostrum

Visible - near infrared spectroscopy coupled with variable selection using simulated annealing PLS regression was tested to predict immunoglobulin fractions (g/L) of bovine colostrum, namely IgG, IgA and IgM. Immunoglobulins were quantified in 678 samples using the gold standard radial immunodiffusion. Samples were divided in calibration (50%) and validation (50%) datasets. Maximum number of selected variables were limited to 200 and root mean squared error in cross validation (RMSE_CV) was used as loss function. Performance of the final model developed using the calibration dataset was assessed on the validation dataset. Overall, simulated annealing PLS improved validation RMSE_CV compared to ordinary PLS regression by 3% to 17%. The present study demonstrated the effectiveness of the calibration model for accurate quantification of IgG, the most abundant immunoglobulin of bovine colostrum (RMSE_CV = 13.28 g/L; R² = 0.83). These outcomes could be useful to assess colostrum quality intended for animal and human usage.

Insights into the Research Trends on Bovine Colostrum: Beneficial Health Perspectives with Special Reference to Manufacturing of Functional Foods and Feed Supplements

Bovine colostrum (BC) is the initial mammary secretion after parturition, which is nature’s bountiful source consisting of nutritional and bioactive components present in a highly concentrated low-volume format. All mammalian newborns require colostrum to enhance physiological processes such as lifelong immunity, gastrointestinal development, and resistance to microbial infections. The genetic, environmental, and processing methods can all have an impact on the biochemical contents of BC and its supplements. BC and its derivatives have been intensively researched for their potential use in functional foods, medicines, and animal feed. Evidence from clinical studies suggests that BC products are well-tolerated, nontoxic, and safe for human ingestion. Functional foods, feed, and pharmaceutical formulations based on bovine colostrum are playing noteworthy roles in the development of innovative products for promoting health and the prevention of chronic illnesses. This systematic review sheds light on recent research on (a) the effects of processing techniques on BC components, (b) emerging techniques used in the isolation and identification of novel components, (c) BC-based functional foods for human consumption and animal feed supplements, and (d) the role of BC in current drug delivery, as well as future recommendations.

Real-time monitoring of immunoglobulin G levels in milk using an ordered porous layer interferometric optical sensor

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a significant ingredient of immunological activity in milk and colostrum, the activity and content of which is easily disturbed by potentially conditional variant during sterilization. Therefore, developing robust methods for the detection of IgG levels in milk is especially important. Herein, protein A from the Staphylococcus aureus functionalized silica colloidal crystalline film (SCC@SPA) sensing unit combined with ordered porous layer interferometry (OPLI) for IgG detection in untreated bovine milk was developed. Calibration curves in milk and buffer were set up by the variations of the optical thickness (OT) of the sensing unit after the IgG association and dissociation phases. The influence of temperature on the level of IgG was evaluated. Furthermore, the identification of IgG levels with pasteurized milk and ultrahigh temperature (UHT) sterilized milk from the market randomly was successfully carried out without any sample pretreatment. More importantly, compared with other methods, this novel method has the advantages of convenient operation, low cost, and suitability for point-of-care (POC) testing.

Immunoglobulin G Concentrations in Alpaca Colostrum during the First Four Days after Parturition

Simple Summary

During the first days after parturition, mammalian milk (colostrum) is specifically formulated to nourish newborns. Immunoglobulins are a particularly important component for newborn New World camelids, as their immune system is almost totally dependent on the intestinal transfer of colostral immunoglobulins to acquire passive immunity. In this study, colostrum samples were collected from 20 alpaca mares in the first four days after parturition and analyzed for their immunoglobulin concentration. Sampling started on the day of parturition. The associations of immunoglobulins with other components were determined. The immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentrations decreased significantly within the first four days after parturition. The correlation coefficients between IgG content and the content of various minerals were significant but variable. The correlation between IgG content and fat and lactose content was negative but between IgG content and protein content was highly positive. This strong association could be used for a brief estimation of the IgG content of the colostrum based on the measured protein concentration. The results of the present study can be used for the development of colostrum replacers where motherless rearing is required.

Abstract

Colostrum provides the newborn with nutrients and immunoglobulins. Immunoglobulins and their intestinal transfer play a major role in the immune system of neonates since they are born agammaglobulinemic. In this study immunoglobulin G (IgG) content was determined in alpaca colostrum and the correlations of the IgG concentration by fat, protein, lactose and minerals were calculated. Colostrum samples were collected daily from 20 multiparous alpaca mares during the first four days after parturition. The IgG concentrations were determined by radial immunodiffusion using a Camelid IgG Test Kit. The IgG concentration decreased significantly from 26,319 mg/dL on day 1 to 3848.8 mg/dL on day 4. There were significant correlations between IgG concentration and the other components of the colostrum. While the correlations between IgG and fat (r = −0.69, p ≤ 0.001) and lactose (r = −0.64, p ≤ 0.001) were negative, the correlations with protein (r = 0.91, p ≤ 0.001), magnesium (r = 0.86, p ≤ 0.001) and cobalt (r = 0.87, p ≤ 0.001) were strongly positive. Due to the strong association, the colostrum protein concentration could be used for a brief estimation of the IgG content.

Bioactive compounds, nutritional profile and health benefits of colostrum: a review

Bovine colostrum is defined as first milk by milching animals responsible for providing the innate immunity to the neonatal and possess many immunoglobulins for preventing the calf from diseases. Colostrum consist of many bioactive compounds like proteins, enzymes, growth factors, immunoglobulins and nucleotides that provides several benefits to human health. Numerous clinical and pre-clinical studies have demonstrated the therapeutic benefits of the bovine colostrum. This review focusses on bioactive compounds, their health benefits, potential of colostrum for developing several health foods and prevention of respiratory and gastrointestinal tract disorders. Processing can also be done to extend shelf-life and extraction of bioactive constituents either as encapsulated or as extracts. The products derived from bovine colostrum are high-end supplements possessing high nutraceutical value.

Bovine Colostrum for Human Consumption—Improving Microbial Quality and Maintaining Bioactive Characteristics through Processing

The main purpose of bovine colostrum, being the milk secreted by a cow after giving birth, is to transfer passive immunity to the calf. The calves have an immature immune system as they lack immunoglobulins (Igs). Subsequently, the supply of good quality bovine colostrum is required. The quality of colostrum is classified by low bacterial counts and adequate Ig concentrations. Bacterial contamination can contain a variety of human pathogens or high counts of spoilage bacteria, which has become more challenging with the emerging use of bovine colostrum as food and food supplements. There is also a growing risk for the spread of zoonotic diseases originating from bovines. For this reason, processing based on heat treatment or other feasible techniques is required. This review provides an overview of literature on the microbial quality of bovine colostrum and processing methods to improve its microbial quality and keep its nutritional values as food. The highlights of this review are as follows: high quality colostrum is a valuable raw material in food products and supplements; the microbial safety of bovine colostrum is increased using an appropriate processing-suitable effective heat treatment which does not destroy the high nutrition value of colostrum; the heat treatment processes are cost-effective compared to other methods; and heat treatment can be performed in both small- and large-scale production.

Bovine Colostrum Silage: Physicochemical and Microbiological Characteristics at Different Fermentation Times

Bovine colostrum silage (BCS) is a technique used by milk producers for the conservation of bovine colostrum. However, it is necessary to ensure the safety and quality of BCS, as this food will be supplied to the animals. This study aimed to compare the physicochemical and microbiological compositions of colostrum silage at different fermentation times with milk and bovine colostrum (BC) quality parameters. BC samples were obtained from Jersey animals from one dairy farm. The BC samples (n = 21) were placed in 500-mL plastic bottles, stored vertically and anaerobically fermented for periods of 61-437 days. The following parameters of the physicochemical composition of the BCS were evaluated: acidity, protein, total solids and ash, using the methodologies of Adolfo Lutz Institute (2008). The microbiological analysis was developed according to the methodology proposed by Saalfeld et al. (2013), with adaptations. The acidity, total solids and protein over fermentation time (group 1: 61 to 154, group 2: 200 to 273, and group 3: 280 to 437 days) were not significantly different (P > 0.05). The ash content was significantly different (P < 0.05) in groups 1 and 3 and showed a decrease (moderate negative correlation of -0.63) with increasing fermentation time. Positive correlations were observed between total solids and the protein and ash contents. The genus of microorganisms with the highest occurrence was Lactobacillus spp. (95.2% of BCS) and those of lesser occurrence included Escherichia spp., Actinomadura spp., Streptococcus spp. and Leuconostoc spp. (4.8% of BCS). BCS has a physicochemical composition similar to BC and showed changes during the fermentation period; however, the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in BCSs reinforces the need to further explore the quality parameters for BCS to ensure the safety of animals who receive this food.

Applications of novel processing technologies to enhance the safety and bioactivity of milk

Bioactive compounds in food can have high impacts on human health, such as antioxidant, antithrombotic, antitumor, and anti-inflammatory activities. However, many of them are sensitive to thermal treatments incurred during processing, which can reduce their availability and activity. Milk, including ovine, caprine, bovine, and human is a rich source of bioactive compounds, including immunoglobulins, vitamins, and amino acids. However, processing by various novel thermal and non-thermal technologies has different levels of impacts on these compounds, according to the studies reported in the literature, predominantly in the last 10 years. The reported effect of these technologies either covers microbial inactivation or the bioactive composition; however, there is a lack of comprehensive compilation of studies that compare the effect of these technologies on bioactive compounds in milk (especially, caprine and ovine) to microbial inactivation at similar settings. This research gap makes it challenging to conclude on the specific processing parameters that could be optimized to achieve targets of microbial safety and nutritional quality at the same time. This review covers the effect of a wide range of thermal and non-thermal processing technologies including high-pressure processing, pressure-assisted thermal sterilization, pulsed-electric field treatment, cold plasma, microwave-assisted thermal sterilization, ultra-high-pressure homogenization, ultrasonication, irradiation on the bioactive compounds as well as on microbial inactivation in milk. Although a combination of more than one technology could improve the reduction of bacterial contaminants to meet the required food safety standards and retain bioactive compounds, there is still scope for research on these hurdle approaches to simultaneously achieve food safety and bioactivity targets.

Low-molecular components of colostrum as a regulator of the organism redox-system and biological antidote

The protein composition in the diapason of molecular masses from 4800 to 9500 Dа has been studied in colostrum, taken from different cows, and manifested the expressed biological activity. For this aim, an influence of low-molecular components of colostrum on some physiological parameters (change of body mass and temperature) at intoxication of animals (Wistar rats) by blue stone has been studied. An influence of colostrum low-molecular components on parameters of the organism redox-system (content of hyperperoxides of lipids and activity of glutathione peroxidase) in the blood serum of animals has been studied. For determining integral characteristics of colostrum components, electric conductivity of skim colostrum and one of colostrum with low-molecular proteins (less than 10 000 Dа), taken from different cows, were used. The aim of this work is to study interconnections of an influence of colostrum low-molecular proteins on models of organism intoxication by cooper ions. It is demonstrated, that the colostrum composition includes 25–35 different proteins with a molecular mass from 4800 to 9500 Dа. The number and ratio between protein fractions depend on individual physiological-biochemical characteristics of producers. It has been revealed, that there is no direct dependence between the protein content in a measuring cell (2 mg/ml, 4 mg/ml and 10 mg/ml) with skim colostrum and electric conductivity change, and this dependence is different for skim colostrum, taken from different cows. Individual differences are manifested both at electric conductivity change and by the content of colostrum low-molecular proteins in a measuring cell. It is demonstrated, that colostrum low-molecular components can eliminate the toxic effect of blue stone on the organism, which mechanisms are connected with a balance shift in the system “prooxidants↔antioxidants” towards antioxidants. The electric conductivity of colostrum components may be used as an express-method for evaluating biologically active substances of colostrum

Using BAMLET complex in a functional spreadable cheese elaborated with bovine colostrum

BAMLET is a bioactive complex formed by the interaction between α-Lactoalbumin (α-LA) and oleic acid which exhibits cytotoxic activity against cancer cells. BAMLET is selectively cytotoxic to malignant cells while sparing the healthy ones. There are, however, no reports about its application in a food matrix. The objective of this work was to synthetize the BAMLET complex from oleic acid and bovine colostrum from the second and third milkings which naturally contain α-LA to prepare two functional spreadable cheeses. The complex was successfully formed and retained in the cheeses as verified through SDS-PAGE applied to the whey obtained. The spreadable cheese from the second milking had a higher protein content (13.56 ± 0.02%) and a higher yield (40%) than the product obtained from the third milking. Even though the cheeses did not show any significant differences (p > 0.05) in the inhibition of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 1, their inhibitory activities were good, as a 0.5 g portion of the cheese from the second milking was sufficient to inhibit 57.52 ± 9.17%, while the cheese from the third milking inhibited 51.48 ± 1.07% of the enzyme. The sensory analysis showed a good acceptance for both spreadable cheeses.

Influence of feeding fresh colostrum from the dam or frozen colostrum from a pool on indicator gut microbes and the inflammatory response in neonatal calves

The aim of this study was to evaluate the capacity of cells from colostrum to modulate the intestinal microbial colonization, the activity of the inflammatory response, and for their influence on the development of diarrheal disease in calves. Twenty calves were distributed into two groups: COL+ (n = 10) receiving fresh whole colostrum; COL- (n = 10) receiving pooled frozen colostrum, containing no viable cells. All assessments were made before colostrum intake (D0), the next day (D2), and weekly on the 7th (D7), 14th (D14), 21st (D21) and 28th (D28) day of age. Diarrhea was assessed using a fecal score, and the systemic inflammatory status was assessed using a combination of temperature, anemia, total serum iron level, total haptoglobin concentration and the need for systemic antimicrobial treatment. The number of indicator bacteria present in the fecal population was estimated using qPCR. However, COL- calves presented more frequent signs of systemic inflammatory response including, fever at D7 (P = 0.011); indicator haptoglobin levels on D7 and D14, and lower levels of iron on D7, D14. Anemia was detected more often in the COL- calves on D21 (P = 0.043) and D28 (P = 0.016). COL- calves had a 1.66 greater chance of having elevated haptoglobin and a 1.8 greater chance of needing treatment with antimicrobials than COL+. A lower number of DNA copies of Clostridium perfringens were detected in COL+ calves on D2 (P = 0.088) and D7 (P = 0.040). Similarly, a low number of DNA copies was observed for Escherichia coli and Lactobacillus spp. (P = 0.012) in the fecal samples of COL+ calves on D7.

Bovine colostrum whey: Postpartum changes of particle size distribution and immunoglobulin G concentration at different filtration pore sizes

Bovine colostrum, as vital as it is for calves, is also a valuable source of functional components with rich health benefits for humans. Bovine colostrum whey consists of a large number of bioactive proteins and peptides. The most abundant of these is IgG. Particle size distribution (PSD) is an important feature of many of the processes in the dairy food industries. Despite this, scientific literature on PSD of colostrum whey is scarce. The goal of this research was to describe bovine colostrum whey PSD with an emphasis on postpartum milking time, filtration (pore size 450, 100, and 20 nm), IgG concentration, and lactation number. For this purpose, 4 postpartum milking colostrum samples were sequentially milked from 46 Holstein cows at 12 ± 1 h intervals. Colostrum whey was prepared by renneting and diluted (1:200) for PSD analyses by a Malvern Zetasizer Nano ZS (Malvern Instruments Ltd., Malvern, UK). Immunoglobulin G concentration of these diluted colostrum whey samples were analyzed by an Octet K2 (Molecular Devices LLC, San Jose, CA) system. Linear mixed model analysis revealed significant effects of filter pore size, postpartum milking, and lactation on colostrum whey IgG concentrations. The percentage of particles in the size interval 5 to 15 nm (the hydrodynamic diameter of IgG is around 10 nm) had an intermediate positive correlation (r = 0.50) with IgG concentration. Furthermore, we showed that PSD was associated with IgG concentration, postpartum milking time, and lactation number. The PSD measurement results showed the mean hydrodynamic diameter of 100 nm pore size filtered colostrum whey to be around 10 nm. This, with the IgG concentration results, suggests that even though the size of IgG is around 10 nm, a 100 nm pore size is adequate for membrane-involved IgG separations. In terms of energy efficiency of the filtration process, the use of a larger filter pore size can make a remarkable difference, for example, in pressurizing and cooling costs. Our work contributes to the development of sustainable and widely available colostrum-derived food and feed supplements.

High-pressure homogenization and high hydrostatic pressure processing of human milk: Preservation of immunological components for human milk banks

Human milk (HM) constitutes the first immunological barrier and the main source of nutrients and bioactive components for newborns. Immune factors comprise up to 10% of the protein content in HM, where antibodies are the major components (mainly IgA, IgG, and IgM). In addition, antibacterial enzymes such as lysozyme and immunoregulatory factors such as soluble cluster of differentiation 14 (sCD14) and transforming growth factor β2 (TGF-β2) are also present and play important roles in the protection of the infant's health. Donor milk processed in HM banks by Holder pasteurization (HoP; 62.5°C, 30 min) is a safe and valuable resource for preterm newborns that are hospitalized, but is reduced in major immunological components due to thermal inactivation. We hypothesized that high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) and high-pressure homogenization (HPH) are 2 processes that can be used on HM to reduce total bacteria counts while retaining immunological components. We studied the effects of HHP (400, 450, and 500 MPa for 5 min applied at 20°C) and HPH (200, 250, and 300 MPa, milk inlet temperature of 20°C) applied to mature HM, on microbiological and immunological markers (IgA, IgG, IgM, sCD14, and TGF-β2), and compared them with those of traditional HoP in HM samples from healthy donors. The HHP processing between 400 and 500 MPa at 20°C reduced counts of coliform and total aerobic bacteria to undetectable levels (<1.0 log cfu/mL) while achieving approximately 100% of immunological component retention. In particular, comparing median percentages of retention of immunological components for 450 MPa versus HoP, we found 101.5 versus 50.5% for IgA, 89.5 versus 26.0% for IgM, 104.5 versus 75.5% for IgG, 125.0 versus 72.5% for lysozyme, 50.6 versus 0.1% for sCD14, and 88.5 versus 61.1% for TGF-β2, respectively. Regarding HPH processing, at a pressure of 250 MPa and inlet temperature of 20°C, the process showed good potential to reduce coliforms to undetectable levels and total aerobic bacteria to levels slightly above those obtained by HoP. The median percentages of retention of immunological markers for HPH versus HoP were 71.5 versus 52.0%, 71.0 versus 27.0%, 104.0 versus 66.5%, and 30.9 versus 0.2%, for IgA, IgM, IgG, and sCD14, respectively; results did not significantly differ for lysozyme and TGF-β2. The HPH at 300 MPa produced higher inactivation of immunological components, similar to values achieved with HoP.

Use of glycerol and propylene glycol as additives in heat-treated goat colostrum

This experiment aimed to evaluate the suitability of glycerol and propylene glycol to reduce microbial count and preserve immune properties in heat-treated goat colostrum. Colostrum samples from 11 goats were each divided into 9 aliquots. Different concentrations (2, 6, 10, and 14%; vol/vol) of either glycerol or propylene glycol were added to the aliquots. Phosphate buffer solution was added to one aliquot, which was set as the control (CG). After the respective additions, all colostrum samples were heat treated at 56°C for 1 h. After cooling, aerobic mesophilic bacteria were cultured. The samples were frozen until free fatty acid, IgG, IgA, and IgM concentrations and chitotriosidase activity were measured. No differences were found in aerobic mesophilic bacteria counts between either 10 or 14% glycerol and propylene glycol additives. These additions reduced bacterial count to a greater extent than CG, and 2 or 6% additions. Colostrum IgG concentration was not affected by either of the additives or their concentrations. The propylene glycol additive reduced IgA and IgM concentrations and chitotriosidase activity, compared with CG. Conversely, glycerol did not affect any of the studied immune variables. In conclusion, glycerol addition to goat colostrum before heat treatment is suitable to enhance bacterial reduction, whereas colostrum immune properties were not affected.

Fermented, ultrasonicated, and dehydrated bovine colostrum: Changes in antimicrobial properties and immunoglobulin content

This study evaluated the influence of fermentation with Lactobacillus plantarum LUHS135 and Lactobacillus paracasei LUHS244, ultrasonication, and different methods of dehydration on the content of IgG, IgA, and IgM in bovine colostrum (BC), as well as the antimicrobial activity of the treated and fresh BC samples [fresh = BC; freeze dried = BC_lyoph; vacuum dried (+45°C) = BC_vacdried; BC fermented with LUHS135 = BC_LUHS135; BC fermented with LUHS244 = BC_LUHS244; BC fermented with LUHS135 and freeze dried = BC_LUHS135lyoph; BC fermented with LUHS244 and freeze dried = BC_{LUHS244 lyoph}; BC fermented with LUHS135 and vacuum dried = BC_{LUHS135 vacdried}; BC fermented with LUHS244 and vacuum dried = BC_{LUHS244 vacdried}; BC ultrasonicated and freeze dried = BC_{ultr lyoph}; BC ultrasonicated and vacuum dried = BC_{ultr vacdried}]. The antimicrobial activity was assessed against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella enterica, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumanni, Proteus mirabilis, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, Bacillus cereus, Streptococcus mutans, Enterobacter cloacae, Citrobacter freundii, Staphylococcus epidermis, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, and Pasteurella multocida using the agar well diffusion method, as well as in liquid medium. In liquid medium analysis showed that the fermented BC samples had the broadest antimicrobial spectrum (of 15 tested pathogenic strains, BC_{LUHS135 vacdried} and BC_LUHS135lyoph inhibited 13; BC_{LUHS244 vacdried} inhibited 12; and BC_LUHS135, BC_LUHS244, and BC_{LUHS244 lyoph} inhibited 11). Based on the inhibition zones, BC_LUHS135lyoph samples exhibited the broadest inhibition spectrum, inhibiting the growth of 12 of the 15 tested pathogenic strains). According to the lactic acid bacteria strain selected for BC fermentation, different properties of the BC will be obtained. To ensure a broad antimicrobial spectrum and high IgG content, fermentation with LUHS135 can be recommended (IgG concentration in BC_LUHS135 was retained), whereas fermentation with LUHS244 will provide a high IgM concentration (IgM concentration increased by 48.8 and 21.6% in BC_LUHS244 and BC_LUHS244lyoph samples, respectively). However, IgA is very sensitive for fermentation, and further studies are needed to increase IgA stability in BC. Finally, fermented BC can be recommended as a food/beverage ingredient, providing safety, as well as improved functionality through displaying a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activities.