Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of Mentha pulegium, Lavandula stoechas and Satureja calamintha Scheele essential oils and an evaluation of their bactericidal effect in combined processes

Overview of Ethnobotanical-Pharmacological Studies Carried Out on Medicinal Plants from the Serra da Estrela Natural Park: Focus on Their Antidiabetic Potential

The Serra da Estrela Natural Park (NPSE) in Portugal stands out as a well-preserved region abundant in medicinal plants, particularly known for their pharmaceutical applications in diabetes prevention and treatment. This comprehensive review explores these plants' botanical diversity, traditional uses, pharmacological applications, and chemical composition. The NPSE boast a rich diversity with 138 medicinal plants across 55 families identified as traditionally and pharmacologically used against diabetes globally. Notably, the Asteraceae and Lamiaceae families are prevalent in antidiabetic applications. In vitro studies have revealed their significant inhibition of carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes, and certain plant co-products regulate genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism and insulin secretion. In vivo trials have demonstrated antidiabetic effects, including glycaemia regulation, insulin secretion, antioxidant activity, and lipid profile modulation. Medicinal plants in NPSE exhibit various activities beyond antidiabetic, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-cancer, and more. Chemical analyses have identified over fifty compounds like phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and polysaccharides responsible for their efficacy against diabetes. These findings underscore the potential of NPSE medicinal plants as antidiabetic candidates, urging further research to develop effective plant-based antidiabetic drugs, beverages, and supplements.

Impact of Climate Change on the Chemical Compositions and Antioxidant Activity of Mentha pulegium L

A central position in Moroccan ethnobotany is held by the Mentha genus, serving as a vital reference for aromatic and medicinal plants within the Lamiaceae family. The profound importance of Mentha species in the daily lives of Moroccans is recognized, and the primary objective of this study is to assess the impact of rising temperatures and decreasing precipitation on the primary and secondary metabolites of Mentha pulegium under the following climatic conditions: sample 1, cultivated under standard temperature and precipitation conditions during the first year; sample 2, subjected to an 8 °C temperature increase and a 25% reduction in water supply; and sample 3, exposed to a 12 °C temperature rise and a 50% decrease in water availability. Phytochemical screening results reveal a progressive decline in primary metabolites from sample 1 to sample 3 due to the increase in temperature and decrease in precipitation. Conversely, a distinct trend is observed in secondary metabolites and the yield of essential oil, increasing from sample 1 to sample 2 as the temperature rises and precipitation decreases. Remarkably, in sample 3, the yield of essential oil decreases as climatic conditions further deteriorate. Additionally, GC analysis demonstrates that modifications in the chemical compositions of essential oils occur because of the disruption of climatic parameters, particularly in the major compounds. Similarly, changes in climatic parameters significantly influence antioxidant activity, with sample 2 exhibiting the highest activity, as reflected by an IC50 value (half-maximal inhibitory concentration) of 14,874.04 μg/mL, followed by the third sample at 8488.43 μg/mL, whereas the first sample exhibits the lowest activity at 4505.02 μg/mL. In summary, the complex relationship between climatic factors and the chemical composition of Mentha pulegium is highlighted by our experiment, emphasizing its implications for medicinal properties within an ecological context.

Fenchone and camphor: Main natural compounds from Lavandula stoechas L., expediting multiple in vitro biological activities

Lavandula stoechas, a Mediterranean plant, renowned in traditional medicine for its health benefits, is also arousing strong interest associated with its essential oils (EOs) with promising therapeutic properties. The aim of this study was to analyze the chemical composition of the plant, as well as to study its major activities, including antioxidant, anti-diabetic, dermatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial effects, focusing on its major molecules. Using the GC-MS method, the main compounds identified in L. stoechas EO (LSEO) were fenchone (31.81 %) and camphor (29.60 %), followed by terpineol (13.14 %) and menthone (8.96 %). To assess their antioxidant activity, three in vitro methods were used (DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS). The results revealed that LSEO exhibited the best antiradical property (54 ± 62 μg/mL) according to the DPPH test, while fenchone demonstrated the highest antioxidant capacity (87 ± 92 μg/mL) in the FRAP test, and camphor displayed the highest antioxidant capacity (96 ± 32 μg/mL) in the ABTS test. However, these results were lower than those obtained by Trolox used as a reference. In addition, study also explored the anti-diabetic potential of LSEO and its major compounds by evaluating their inhibitory activity towards two digestive enzymes, α-glucosidase and α-amylase. Camphor (76.92 ± 2.43 μg/mL) and fenchone (69.03 ± 2.31 μg/mL) exhibited the best inhibitory activities for α-amylase and α-glucosidase assays, respectively. Interestingly, all elements of the study exerted activities superior to those of acarbose, regardless of the test performed. In contrast, the evaluation of the dermatoprotective potential was carried out in vitro by targeting two enzymes involved in cutaneous processes, tyrosinase and elastase. In this light, fenchone (53.14 ± 3.06 μg/mL) and camphor (48.39 ± 1.92 μg/mL) were the most active against tyrosinase and elastase, respectively. It should be noted that the effect of both molecules, as well as that of LSEO, ranged between 53.14 ± 3.06 and 97.45 ± 5.22 μg/mL, which was significantly lower than the standard, quercetin (IC50 of 246.90 ± 2 0.54 μg/mL) against tyrosinase. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory potential of these elements has been studied by evaluating their ability to inhibit lipooxygenase (LOX), a class of enzymes involved in the inflammatory process in the human body. As a result, the LSEO demonstrated a remarkable effect with an IC50 of 6.34 ± 1.29 μg/mL, which was almost comparable to the standard, quercetin (IC50 = 3.93 ± 0.45 μg/mL). Concerning the antibacterial potential, we carried out a quantitative analysis of the various products tested, revealing a bactericidal activity of the LSEO against the strain L. monocytogenes ATCC 13932 at a minimum effective concentration (MIC = CMB = 0.25). Overall, LSEOs offer significant potential as a source of natural antioxidants, and antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory agents, as well as dermatoprotective and antibacterial compounds. Its major molecules, fenchone and camphor, showed promising activity in these areas of study, making it a valuable candidate for future research and development in the field of natural medicine.

Combination of Chemically-Characterized Essential Oils from Eucalyptus polybractea, Ormenis mixta, and Lavandula burnatii: Optimization of a New Complete Antibacterial Formulation Using Simplex-Centroid Mixture Design

This study aims to identify the volatile profile of three essential oils obtained from Eucalyptus polybractea cryptonifera (EPEO), Ormenis mixta (OMEO), and Lavandula burnatii briquet (LBEO) and to examine their combined antibacterial activity that affords the optimal inhibitory ability against S. aureus and E. coli using simplex-centroid mixture design and checkerboard assay. Essential oils (EOs) were isolated by hydrodistillation and characterized using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography coupled with flame-ionization detector (GC-FID). The antibacterial activity was performed using disc diffusion and microdilution assays. The chemical analysis revealed that 1,8-cineole (23.75%), p-cymene (22.47%), and α-pinene (11.20%) and p-menthane-1,8-diol (18.19%), α-pinene (10.81%), and D-germacrene (9.17%) were the main components detected in E. polybractea and O. mixta EOs, respectively. However, L. burnatii EO was mainly represented by linalool (24.40%) and linalyl acetate (18.68%). The EPEO, LBEO, and OMEO had a strong antibacterial effect on S. aureus with minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) values ranging from 0.25 to 0.5% (v/v). Furthermore, the combination of 1/2048 MICEPEO + 1/4 MICLBEO showed a synergistic antibacterial effect on S. aureus with a FIC index of 0.25, while the formulation of 1/4 MICEPEO + 1/4 MICOMEO demonstrated an antibacterial synergistic activity on E. coli with a FIC index of 0.5. Moreover, the simplex-centroid mixture design reported that the most effective combinations on E. coli and S. aureus correspond to 32%/28%/40% and 35%/30%/35% of E. polybractea, O. mixta, and L. burnatii, respectively. Presented information highlights the action of antibacterial formulations of these EOs and suggests their potential applications as alternatives to commercialized drugs to contract the development of bacteria causing serious infections and food deterioration.

Towards a Greener Approach for Biomass Valorization: Integration of Supercritical Fluid and Deep Eutectic Solvents

A green and sustainable procedure for obtaining Lavandula stoechas extracts with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties was investigated. Green solvents, supercritical CO₂, and natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) together with ultrasound-assisted extraction were used for the sequential extraction of terpene and polyphenols fractions. After the CO₂ extraction of the terpene fraction, the residue material was used in an extraction with different NADES (betaine-ethylene glycol (Bet:EG), betaine-glycerol (Bet:Gly), and glycerol-glucose (Gly:Glu)), intensified with an ultrasound-assisted method (at 30 and 60 °C). In the CO₂ extract, the major group of components belonged to oxygenated monoterpenes, while the highest polyphenol content with the dominant rutin (438.93 ± 4.60 µg/mL) was determined in Bet:EG extracts (60 °C). Bet:EG extracts also exhibited the most potent antioxidant activity according to DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays. Moreover, Bet:EG extracts showed significant inhibitory activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with minimum inhibitory activity of 0.781-3.125 and 1.563-6.250 mg·mL^-1, respectively. By comparing the polyphenolic content and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Bet:EG extracts with extracts obtained with conventional solvents (water and ethanol), the superiority of NADES was determined. The established environmentally friendly procedure unifies the requirements of green and sustainable development and modern pharmacognosy because it combines the use of safe alternative solvents, the absence of solvent waste generation, more rational use of resources, and the attainment of safe and quality extracts.

Phytochemical analysis and evaluation of antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiabetic activities of essential oils from Moroccan medicinal plants: Mentha suaveolens, Lavandula stoechas, and Ammi visnaga

Mentha suaveolens, Lavandula stoechas, and Ammi visnaga are widely used in Moroccan folk medicine against several pathological disorders, including diabetes and infectious diseases. This work was designed to determine the chemical profile of M. suaveolens (MSEO), L. stoechas (LSEO), and A. visnaga (AVEO) essential oils and assess their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiabetic effects. The volatile components of LSEO, AVEO, and MSEO were analyzed using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The in vitro antidiabetic activity was assessed using α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes, while DPPH, FRAP, and β-carotene/linoleic acid methods were used to determine the antioxidant capacity. The antimicrobial activities were investigated using disc diffusion and broth-microdilution assays. GC-MS investigation revealed that the main components were fenchone (29.77 %) and camphor (24.9 %) for LSEO, and linalool (38.29 %) for AVEO, while MSEO was mainly represented by piperitenone oxide (74.55 %). The results of the antimicrobial evaluation showed that all examined essential oils (EOs) had noticeable antimicrobial activity against both bacteria and yeast, especially Micrococcus luteus and Bacillus subtilis. The MIC, MBC, and MFC values were ranged from 0.015 % to 0.5 %. The MBC/MIC and MFC/MIC ratios were less than or equal to 4.0 % (v/v), indicating their noticeable bactericidal and candidacidal efficacy. Moreover, the three EOs showed significant inhibitory effects on α-amylase and α-glucosidase (p < 0.05). It also exerted remarkable activity on FRAP, β-carotene, and DPPH radicals. These findings demonstrated that the tested plants have promising biological activities, validating their ethnomedicinal value and providing potential applications as natural drugs.

Simplex-centroid design as innovative approach in the optimization of antimicrobial effect of Thymus satureioides, Myrtus communis and Artemisia herba alba essential oils against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candidatropicalis

Essential Oils (EOs) known since Antiquity, and initially obtained by maceration of aromatic plants, are used as diseases' remedies because they contain valuable therapeutic components. Antimicrobial effect's evaluation of formulations established by an augmented centered mixing plan for three Moroccan medicinal and aromatic plants' essential oils (EOs): Thymus satureioides (T. satureioides), Myrtus communis (M. communis) and Artemisia herba alba (A. herba alba) against Escherichia coli (E. coli), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Candida tropicalis (C. tropicalis). The identification of E.Os chemical compounds was made using Gaz chromatography (GC) and Gaz chromatography coupled to Mass spectrometry (GC/MS).Whereas, the optimization of their antimicrobial effect was performed by experimental design methodology (mixture design) coupled to microdilution method based on Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs) determination. Results showed that the main components are borneol (34.26%) and α-pinene (31.21%); borneol (27.15%) and 1,8-cineole (21.33%); camphor (14.67%), chrysanthenone (14.10%), and β-thujone (12.60%) for T. satureioides, M. communis and A. herba alba respectively. Optimal mixtures composed of 60% and 40% of T. satureioides and M. communis E.Os; 72% and 28% of T. satureioides and A. Herba alba E.Os; 75% of thyme E.O and 25% of mugwort E.O; predicted the highest antimicrobial effect against E. coli, S. aureus and C. tropicalis, respectively. This study highlights the antimicrobial effect of EOs tertiary mixtures through using mixture design methodology, which may contribute to a successful application in pharmaceutical, food, or cosmetic industries.

Chemical Profiling and Biological Properties of Essential Oils of Lavandula stoechas L. Collected from Three Moroccan Sites: In Vitro and In Silico Investigations

The aim of this study was the determination of the chemical compounds of Lavandula stoechas essential oil from Aknol (LSEO_A), Khenifra (LSEO_K), and Beni Mellal (LSEO_B), and the in vitro investigation of their antibacterial, anticandidal, and antioxidant effects, and in silico anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity. The chemical profile of LSEO was determined using GC-MS-MS analysis, the results of which showed a qualitative and quantitative variation in the chemical composition of volatile compounds including L-fenchone, cubebol, camphor, bornyl acetate, and τ-muurolol; indicating that the biosynthesis of essential oils of Lavandula stoechas (LSEO) varied depending on the site of growth. The antioxidant activity was evaluated using the ABTS and FRAP methods, our results showed that this tested oil is endowed with an ABTS inhibitory effect and an important reducing power which varies between 4.82 ± 1.52 and 15.73 ± 3.26 mg EAA/g extract. The results of antibacterial activity of LSEO_A, LSEO_K and LSEO_B, tested against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, revealed that B. subtilis (20.66 ± 1.15-25 ± 4.35 mm), P. mirabilis (18.66 ± 1.15-18.66 ± 1.15 mm), and P. aeruginosa (13.33 ± 1.15-19 ± 1.00 mm) are the most susceptible strains to LSEO_A, LSEO_K and LSEO_B of which LSEO_B exhibits bactericidal effect against P. mirabilis. furthermore The LSEO exhibited varying degrees of anticandidal activity with an inhibition zones of 25.33 ± 0.5, 22.66 ± 2.51, and 19 ± 1 mm for LSEO_K, LSEO_B, and LSEO_A, respectively. Additionally, the in silico molecular docking process, performed using Chimera Vina and Surflex-Dock programs, indicated that LSEO could inhibit SARS-CoV-2. These important biological properties of LSEO qualify this plant as an interesting source of natural bioactive compounds with medicinal actions.

Mediterranean Lavenders from Section Stoechas: An Undervalued Source of Secondary Metabolites with Pharmacological Potential

Globally, climate change and wildfires are disrupting natural ecosystems, thus setting several endemic species at risk. The genus Lavandula is widely present in the Mediterranean region and its species, namely, those included in the section Stoechas, are valuable resources of active compounds with several biological assets. Since ancient times lavenders have been used in traditional medicine and for domestic purposes. These species are melliferous, decorative, and essential oil-producing plants with a high economic interest in the pharmaceutical, flavor, fragrance, and food industries. The essential oils of Lavandula section Stoechas are characterized by high amounts of 1,8-cineole, camphor, fenchone, and specifically for L. stoechas subsp. luisieri one of the major compounds is trans-α-necrodyl acetate. On the other hand, the diversity of non-volatile components like phenolic compounds, such as phenolic acids and flavonoids, make these species an important source of phytochemicals with pharmacological interest. Rosmarinic, caffeic, and salvianolic B acids are the major phenolic acids, and luteolin and eriodictyol-O-glucuronide are the main reported flavonoids. However, the concentration of these secondary metabolites is strongly affected by the plant’s phenological phase and varies in Lavandula sp. from different areas of origin. Indeed, lavender extracts have shown promising antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties as well as several other beneficial actions with potential for commercial applications. Despite several studies on the bioactive potential of lavenders from the section Stoechas, a systematized and updated review of their chemical profile is lacking. Therefore, we carried out the present review that gathers relevant information on the different types of secondary metabolites found in these species as well as their bioactive potential.

Antimicrobial Activity of Gelatin Nanofibers Enriched by Essential Oils against Cutibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis

Acne vulgaris is a prevalent skin condition that is caused by an imbalance in skin microbiomes mainly by the overgrowth of strains such as Cutibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis which affect both teenagers and adults. Drug resistance, dosing, mood alteration, and other issues hinder traditional therapy. This study aimed to create a novel dissolvable nanofiber patch containing essential oils (EOs) from Lavandula angustifolia and Mentha piperita for acne vulgaris treatment. The EOs were characterized based on antioxidant activity and chemical composition using HPLC and GC/MS analysis. The antimicrobial activity against C. acnes and S. epidermidis was observed by the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). The MICs were in the range of 5.7-9.4 μL/mL, and MBCs 9.4-25.0 μL/mL. The EOs were integrated into gelatin nanofibers by electrospinning and SEM images of the fibers were taken. Only the addition of 20% of pure essential oil led to minor diameter and morphology alteration. The agar diffusion tests were performed. Pure and diluted Eos in almond oil exhibited a strong antibacterial effect on C. acnes and S. epidermidis. After incorporation into nanofibers, we were able to focus the antimicrobial effect only on the spot of application with no effect on the surrounding microorganisms. Lastly, for cytotoxicity evaluation, and MTT assay was performed with promising results that samples in the tested range had a low impact on HaCaT cell line viability. In conclusion, our gelatin nanofibers containing EOs are suitable for further investigation as prospective antimicrobial patches for acne vulgaris local treatment.

Green synthesis of multifunctional ZnO/chitosan nanocomposite film using wild Mentha pulegium extract for packaging applications

Following the global corona virus pandemic and environmental contamination caused by chemical plastic packaging, awareness of the need for environmentally friendly biofilms and antibacterial coatings is increasing. In this study, a biodegradable hybrid film, comprising of green-synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) with a chitosan (CS) matrix, was fabricated using a simple casting procedure. The ZnO NPs were synthesized using wild Mentha pulegium extract, and the synthesized NPs and films were characterized using different approaches. The structural, morphological, mechanical, antibacterial, and optical properties, as well as the hydrophilicity, of the prepared samples were investigated using various techniques. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry measurements revealed the presence of phenolic compounds in the M. pulegium extract. In addition, a strong coordination connection between Zn²⁺ and the chitosan matrix was confirmed, which resulted in a good dispersion of ZnO in the chitosan film. The surface of the composite films was transparent, smooth, and uniform, and the flexible bio-based hybrid films exhibited significant antibacterial and antioxidant characteristics, strong visible emission in the 480 nm region, and UV-blocking properties. The ZnO/CS films displayed a potential to extend the shelf life of fruits by up to eight days when stored at 23°C, and also acted as an acceptable barrier against oxygen and water. The biodegradable ZnO/CS film is expected to keep fruit fresher than general chemical plastic films and be used for the packaging of active ingredients.

Contribution to the identification of medicinal plants used against COVID-19 in North-West Morocco

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) affects humans, who are now developing a milder form of the illness. In addition to the use of available drugs, the local populations in Morocco used medicinal plants during the pandemic. The current study aimed to document and to research the level of use of traditional medicine using plants in Morocco. Ethnobotanical surveys were conducted on the perceptions and level of use of plants through a case study in North-West Morocco. The methodology is based on targeted surveys, from April to September 2021, of households that have had cases if nfection with COVID-19. Five hundred surveys were randomly and systematically distributed in the study area to highlight the medicinal use of plants to treat COVID-19 and its consequences for health and well-being. The results showed the attachment of the populations to traditional medicine with the use of plants available in the study area (local forest area and herbalists). The 23 species used by the populations in question against COVD-19 belong to 12 families. The analysis shows the dominance of the Lamiaceae family with nine species, followed by Asteraceae with three species. The Lamiaceae family have proven marked performance in the fight against COVID-19. The results obtained offer orientations for the enhancement of the beneficial effects of traditional medicine and clinical trials remain to be carried out. The current results highlight that flora can be a source for the discovery of medicinal agents active against COVID-19.

The importance of Lavandula stoechas L. in pharmacognosy and phytotherapy

Lavandula stoechas is distributed in Africa, Europe, and Asia continents, especially in the countries of Southern Europe and North Africa neighboring the Mediterranean. The use of L. stoechas, which has a cosmopolitan distribution, mainly in the Mediterranean region, in the treatment of rheumatic diseases and reduction of inflammatory problems in folk medicine dates back to ancient times. It has been determined that L. stoechas contains various bioactive phytochemicals such as flavonoids, catechic tannins, sterols, coumarins, leucoanthocyanins, and mucilages. The essential oil obtained from the leaves and flowers is widely used in pharmacy. There are ethnobotanical and phytopharmacological studies on the antimicrobial, insecticidal, antileishmanial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects of the essential oil and extracts of the plant. There are intensive studies and clinical data on its anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticonvulsant effects. It has been determined that L. stoechas has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, insecticide, larvicide, anticonvulsant, antispasmodic, sedative, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, antidiabetic, and anticancer effects with scientific studies based on the traditional use of L. stoechas. This review supports that the aforementioned plant can be used as a medicine in the light of its traditional use and the data obtained as a result of scientific studies. In this review, it was emphasized that some regulations should be made on the cultivation, formulation, and marketing of L. stoechas.

Traditional Knowledge of Medicinal Plants Used in the Northeastern Part of Morocco

The knowledge of the plants that are used may provide insight on their properties for further exploration. This study aimed to identify and collect data about medicinal plants used in traditional medicine by the population of the provincial region of Taza, Morocco. An ethnobotanical survey was carried out among 200 informants, competent villagers, herbalists, and traditional healers from the provincial region of Taza city through direct interviews using a structured questionnaire. The survey reported 55 plant species belonging to 28 families used in the folk medicine. Informants' results showed that the most frequently used plants were Origanum compactum, Mentha pulegium, Rosmarinus officinalis L., Aloysia citrodora, Calamintha officinalis Moench, and Artemisia herba-alba Asso., with a relative frequency of citation of 76%, 72%, 60%, 42%, 40%, and 30%, respectively. Moreover, in this study, the Lamiaceae family was the most commonly reported plant family, and the leaves were the most frequently used parts of the plants; otherwise, decoction and infusion were the most used modes in the preparation of remedies from medicinal plants in the traditional medicine. The sociodemographic characteristics showed that women use medicinal plants slightly more than men, the illiterate people use the medicinal plant the most, and old people have more information about the medicinal plants than the new generations. The region of Taza of Morocco has an important floristic biodiversity of medicinal plants which are used in traditional medicine practice. This result provides a good database for pharmacological screening in the search for new plants that can contain new bioactive molecules that can be used as a bioactive ingredient of medicament or as a biological alternative in pharmacology.

Proposals for Antimicrobial Testing Guidelines Applied on Ajowan and Spanish Lavender Essential Oils

To fight the rising resistance of microorganisms to antibiotics, a strategy followed by several researchers is to focus on natural compounds, such as essential oils, as a source of potent antibacterial compounds. These last decades, hundreds of original papers have been written about microbiological assays that prove the antibacterial activity of essential oils and their use in the medical field. But can we really compare all the data available in the literature when the raw material, the microbiological assays, and/or the strains are different from one article to another? This review will point out the differences and the inadequate practices found in published articles that tested 2 lesser-studied essential oils-Spanish lavender and the ajowan-by the broth dilution method against Staphylococcus aureus, a human pathogenic bacterium. Many pitfalls were found in the literature, for example, a variable chemical composition rarely underlined by the authors, unidentified strains or clinical strains used without a related antibiogram, a lack of quality controls, and the assertion of questionable positive results. At last, some general guidelines that should be followed by every scientific researcher will be discussed.

Topical Emulsion Containing Lavandula stoechas Essential Oil as a Therapeutic Agent for Cutaneous Wound Healing

Background and objectives: The present research was designed to evaluate the chemical composition of Lavandula stoechas essential oil (EOLS) as well as the in vivo wound-healing property. The chemical composition of EOLS was identified by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Nineteen compounds of EOLS were reported. Linalool was identified as the major chemical compound (24.87%), followed by linalyl acetate (19.10%). EOLS showed a high content of oxygenated compounds (63.54%). In vivo wound healing activity of the topical cream prepared from EOLS (0.5% w/w) was assessed using a circular excision wound model. The wound area (mm2) in all animal groups was estimated and measured on day 0, 4, 8, 11, and 16. Results: The EOLS formulation cream (0.5% v/w) showed the highest effect on wound models when compared to reference Madecassol® (Asiaticoside). On days 4, 11, and 16, wound contractions were 26.4%, 78%, and 96.3% for the EOLS-treated group, and 8.5%, 64.1%, and 86.1% for the vehicle cream-treated group. Animals treated with EOLS cream showed a significant decrease in the epithelization period, wound area, and scar thickness, whereas the rate of wound contraction significantly increased. This is the first such report to be published. Histological analyses were also consistent with the results of the excision experimental method. Treatment with EOLS cream formulation resulted in decreased inflammation and an increased rate of tissue perfusion and proliferation as well as remodeling, along with re-epithelization. Conclusions: Our results support the use of EOLS in the development of pharmaceuticals for the management of wounds, and/or inflammatory-related diseases. Additional studies are needed to elucidate and explain the exact mechanism of its pharmacological activity.

Protective effects of Lavandula stoechas L. methanol extract against 6-OHDA-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with oxidative stress-induced neuronal damage and death. In European and Persian Traditional Medicine, aerial parts (leaves, stems, and flowers) of Lavandula stoechas L. have been widely used for treating neurodegenerative disorders including PD.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Herein, the protective effects of L. stoechas methanol extract were investigated on 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced cytotoxicity and oxidative damage in PC12 cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The cells were pretreated with a standardized L. stoechas methanol extract (2.5-20 μg/mL) for 24 h and exposed to 6-OHDA (200 μM) thereafter. The cell viability percentage was determined by AlamarBlue test. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was determined by a fluorimetric method using 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate and cellular apoptosis was assessed by the fluorescent probe propidium iodide test. Finally, the expression of proteins involved in apoptosis pathway (Phospho SAPK/JNK, SAPK/JNK, p44/42 MAPK (ERK1/2) and Poly ADP ribose polymerase (PARP)) was measured via Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

Treatment of PC12 cells with 6-OHDA could significantly increase cytotoxicity, ROS level, and cell apoptosis. Pretreatment of PC12 cells with the extract could significantly decrease 6-OHDA cytotoxicity, ROS production, (2.5 and 5 μg/mL) and cell apoptosis (5 μg/mL). Western blot analysis showed that 6-OHDA exposure could increase the expression of proteins involved in apoptosis signaling, while pretreatment with L. stoechas (5 μg/mL) reduced apoptotic proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrated that L. stoechas, which has been traditionally used in Persian Medicine for treating CNS diseases, is a valuable source of active compounds with neuroprotective, anti-oxidant, and anti-apoptotic activity.

Characterization, activities, and ethnobotanical uses of Mentha species in Morocco

This work is a summary of the characterization, activities, and ethnobotanical surveys about aromatic and medicinal plants belonging to the genus Mentha in Morocco. The Mentha species investigated are Mentha pulegium, Mentha spicata, Mentha viridis, Mentha suaveolens, Mentha longifolia, Mentha gattefossei, Mentha rotundifolia, and Mentha vulgare, with M. pulegium being the most studied species. M. spicata and M. viridis are poorly explored even though they are daily consumed by Moroccans in tea infusions. The elucidated factors affecting the composition of Mentha essential oils are fertilization, drying conditions, mechanical impedance, NaCl stress, and Gamma irradiation. Investigation of the activities of the Mentha species showed that the main interest was dedicated to addressing the antibacterial effect towards gram+ and gram- bacteria. Essential oils of Mentha species exhibited antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, insecticidal, licidal, niticidal, allelopathic, antidiabetic, derma-protective, and anticorrosive activities. The ethnobotanical surveys revealed that Mentha species are used in seven regions: Tafilalet, High Atlas, Fez-Boulemane, Taounat, Oujda, Ouazzane, and Rabat. By calculating the Jaccard index, the highest degree of similarity was found between Tafilalet, Rabat, and Oujda regions. The wide use of the Mentha species in Morocco highlights the high ethnobotanical value of the genus.

Chemical composition, antioxidant capacity and antibacterial action of five Moroccan essential oils against Listeria monocytogenes and different serotypes of Salmonella enterica

Essential oils (EOs) obtained from aromatic plants are rich in natural components with interesting antimicrobial effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the chemical composition of EOs extracted from Origanum majorana (OM-EO), Mentha suaveolens (MS-EO), Rosmarinus officinalis (RO-EO), Salvia officinalis (SO-EO) and Mentha pulegium (MP-EO). Their antioxidant properties and antibacterial activity against Listeria monocytogenes and different serotypes of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica were also studied. The EOs were extracted from plants by hydro-distillation and their chemical composition was determined by GC-MS. Terpinen-4-ol, 1,8-Cineole, Camphor, Limonene and Cinerone were the main chemical components found in OM-EO, RO-EO, SO-EO, MP-EO and MS-EO, respectively. To the best of our knowledge, Limonene and Cinerone were reported, for the first time, as the major components of MP-EO and MS-EO. Moreover, our results showed that MS-EO had the best antioxidant activity with an IC₅₀ of 0.78 ± 0.05 mg/mL, EC₅₀ of 1.53 ± 0.07 mg/mL, and RC₅₀ of 0.98 ± 0.04 mg/mL, and the higher antibacterial activity using microdilution broth method with MIC of 0.5% for Salmonella and 0.25% for L. monocytogenes, while OM-EO had the best antibacterial activity using disc diffusion method (inhibition diameters ranged between 15.3 ± 0.3 mm and 18.5 ± 0.3 mm for Salmonella and between 20.1 ± 0.2 mm and 25.4 ± 0.4 mm for L. monocytogenes). However, OM-EO and MS-EO present the higher percentage of sub-lethally injured cells against S. enterica (5.50 ± 0.11%) and L. monocytogenes (5.23 ± 0.07%), respectively. From this study, we can conclude that the investigated EOs are rich in components with interesting antibacterial activity and they could be applied in food preparations as natural preservatives to extend the shelf life of food products and to inhibit the growth of food-borne pathogens.

Incubation with a Complex Orange Essential Oil Leads to Evolved Mutants with Increased Resistance and Tolerance

Emergence of strains with increased resistance/tolerance to natural antimicrobials was evidenced after cyclic exposure to carvacrol, citral, and (+)-limonene oxide. However, no previous studies have reported the development of resistance and tolerance to complex essential oils (EOs). This study seeks to evaluate the occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus strains resistant and tolerant to a complex orange essential oil (OEO) after prolonged cyclic treatments at low concentrations. Phenotypic characterization of evolved strains revealed an increase of minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentration for OEO, a better growth fitness in presence of OEO, and an enhanced survival to lethal treatments, compared to wild-type strain. However, no significant differences (p > 0.05) in cross-resistance to antibiotics were observed. Mutations in hepT and accA in evolved strains highlight the important role of oxidative stress in the cell response to OEO, as well as the relevance of the cell membrane in the cell response to these natural antimicrobials. This study demonstrates the emergence of S. aureus strains that are resistant and tolerant to EO (Citrus sinensis). This phenomenon should be taken into account to assure the efficacy of natural antimicrobials in the design of food preservation strategies, in cleaning and disinfection protocols, and in clinical applications against resistant bacteria.

Chemical Composition, Antibacterial and Radical Scavenging Activity of Essential Oils from Satureja macrantha C.A.Mey. at Different Growth Stages

Essential oils (EOs) from medicinal and aromatic plants are interesting products to be used as natural food preservatives. The EOs from the genus Satureja are reported to inhibit foodborne pathogens being worthy of use as food preservatives. Satureja macrantha is found in Western and Northwest Iran and commonly used as a food flavoring agent and for the treatment of urinary diseases. The objective of the present study was to identify the chemical composition of S. macrantha EOs at different growth stages (vegetative, flowering and fruiting stages) and to evaluate their biological activities. Chemical compositions were analyzed using GC-FID and GC-MS. The antibacterial activity was evaluated using the broth microdilution method against the foodborne pathogenic bacteria Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC23922), Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC29212) (Gram-positive), Enterobacter aerogenes (ATCC13046) and Escherichia coli. The antioxidant activity was estimated using the DPPH, ABTS and reducing power assays. The yields of S. macrantha EOs were in the range of 1.4–1.8%, thus scalable for the manufacture of food preservatives on an industrial level. The main compounds of EOs were carvacrol (42.7–48.2%), thymol (0.2–16.5%), p-cymene (10.1–14.7%) and γ-terpinene (7.9–9.1%) in all phenological stages examined. The strongest antibacterial activity (MICs = 5–20 µg/mL) of the EOs was recorded in samples obtained during the flowering stage where carvacrol (42.7%) and thymol (16.5) were present both at high percentages. On the other hand, the antioxidant activity was found to be slightly higher in the other stages. As the EO obtained at flowering showed the best inhibitory properties against foodborne pathogenic bacteria, it is suggested that plants at this stage can be selected as main sources of food preservative agents.

A Phytopharmacological review of a Mediterranean plant: Lavandula stoechas L

The Mediterranean region is characterized by a diverse vegetation cover, and the Lavandula genus is one of the most important medicinal and aromatic plants in this region. It has been used in traditional medicine as a treatment for anxiety and insomnia and to improve sleep quality for a long history. Lavender is commonly used in perfumes, soaps, bath powders, and scented sachets. It can flavor teas or food even at low concentrations. Several ethnopharmacological studies have demonstrated its use in treating several diseases; it has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antispasmodic, sedative, insecticidal, antimicrobial and antifungal activities. This paper reviews the geographical distribution, traditional uses, chemical composition, and pharmacological activities of the Lavandula stoechas.

Chemical Compositions of the Volatile Oils and Antibacterial Screening of Solvent Extract from Downy Lavender

The discovery of a new species exhibiting more effective antibacterial properties is necessary because of the demand on Lavandula species, which continues to increase in a variety of industries. Lavandula pubescens might be a good alternative, as it exhibits strong antibacterial activity. In this study, the chemical composition of the essential oils from different organs (flowers, leaves, stems, and roots) of L. pubescens was identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Furthermore, the antimicrobial activities of different solvent extracts (methanol, ethanol, diethyl ether, hexane, and ethyl acetate) and different organ (flower, leaf, stem, and root) extracts of L. pubescens were evaluated. Only the ethyl acetate extracts of L. pubescens exhibited antibacterial activity against all bacterial strains tested, including Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Escherichia coli (KF 918342), Aeromonas hydrophila (KCTC 12487), E. coli (ATCC 35150), Cronobacter sakazakii (ATCC 29544), and Aeromonas salmonicida (KACC 15136). In particular, the extracts exhibited significant activity against S. haemolyticus. Ethyl acetate extract of the leaf exhibited the best activity against all bacterial strains. This study provides valuable information on the chemical compositions in essential oils and antimicrobial properties of L. pubescens.

In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity Screening of Ethanol Extract of Lavandula stoechas and Investigation of Its Biochemical Composition

The aim of this study was to test antimicrobial activity of ethanol extract of Lavandula stoechas against 22 bacteria and 1 yeast. Also, biochemical composition of the extract was investigated. A wide range of Gram-positive, Gram-negative microorganisms, and multidrug resistant bacteria were selected to test the antimicrobial activity. As a result, the extract is observed to contain fenchone (bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one, 1,3,3-trimethyl-, (1R)-) and camphor (+)-2-bornanone) as major components and showed antimicrobial activity against all studied microorganisms except Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Klebsiella pneumoniae. The results of the study present that L. stoechas is active against MDR strains too.

Antioxidant, Antifungal, Antibiofilm, and Cytotoxic Activities of Mentha spp. Essential Oils

Since ancient times, plants have been used to preserve food, or for their health properties. Essential oils are complex mixtures of volatile compounds that are obtained from botanical material, specifically from aromatic plants. Lamiaceae is one of the most important families in the production of essential oils, as it has both antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. The essential oils of Mentha (the Lamiaceae family) have been extensively studied for their biological actions. In this review, we report the antioxidant, antifungal, antibiofilm, and cytotoxic properties of Mentha spp. essential oils. The first objective is to provide comprehensive information about the use of essential oils in the treatment of fungal infections, or as antioxidants and integrative anticancer therapy. The second is to explore the evidence supporting its effectiveness in treating diseases without causing any serious adverse reactions.

Plants of the Genus Lavandula: From Farm to Pharmacy

The Lavandula genus, belonging to the Lamiaceae, includes 39 species, with nearly 400 registered cultivars. Lavandula are worldwide plants that occur over the Mediterranean, Europe, North Africa, southwest Asia to southeast India. Lavandula plants have been used since ancient time to flavor and preserved food, to treat diseases including wound healing, sedative, antispasmodic, microbial and viral infections. Numerous researches have described the chemical composition and the primary components of lavender oils are the monoterpenoids (linalool, linalyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, β-ocimene, terpinen-4-ol, and camphor), sesquiterpenoids (β-caryophyllene and nerolidol) and other terpenoid compounds (e.g., perillyl alcohol). The high concentrations of linalyl acetate make them attractive in perfumery, flavoring, cosmetics and soap industries. Currently, data on the antimicrobial activity of lavender plants have been scientifically confirmed. Indeed, lavender essential oils possess wide spectra of biological activities such as antispasmodic, carminative, analgesic, sedative, hypotensive, antiseptic, antimicrobial, antifungal, antidiuretic and general tonic action. In addition, clinical studies support their uses as treatment of health conditions. However, further clinical studies are necessary to define the magnitude of the efficacy, mechanisms of action, optimal doses, long-term safety, and, potential side effects of lavender plants.

Prospective of Essential Oils of the Genus Mentha as Biopesticides: A Review

Mentha is a genus from the family Lamiaceae, whose essential oils has long been used in various forms such as in management of plant pathogens and insect pests, in traditional medicine as well as in culinary and cosmetics. Its major chemical components such as menthol, carvone have now been successfully commercialized in the industry as antimicrobials/insecticidal agents. Current review focuses on chemical composition of essential oils of some Mentha species from different geographical regions with their insecticidal (repellent, antifeedant, and ovicidal) and antimicrobial efficacies against bacterial, fungal plant pathogens and insects of stored products. Reports of the researchers on chemical analysis of essential oils of Mentha species revealed that most of the oils being rich in pulegone, menthon, menthol, carvone, 1, 8-cineole, limonene and β-caryophyllene. Reviewed literature revealed that, essential oils from different Mentha species possess potential antimicrobial activity against plant pathogens and have insecticidal activity against stored product insects. Thus, antimicrobial and insecticidal properties of essential oils of Mentha species offer the prospect of using them as natural pesticides with a commercial value, having social acceptance due to its sustainability and being environment friendly.

Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds and essential oils from Calamintha nepeta L

Background Essential oils, infusion and decoction extracts of Calamintha nepeta L. were evaluated for their bioactive substances (polyphenols and essential oils) and antioxidant activities. Methods The amounts of phenolic compounds were determined by colorimetric assays and identified by high performance and liquid chromatography coupled with ultraviolet detector (HPLC-UV) method. The chemical composition of essential oils was determined by gas-chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) method. For the evaluation of the antioxidant activity of essential oils and extracts, two different assays (reducing power and DPPH radical scavenging activity) were used. Results Infusion extract presented the highest phenolic content, followed by the decoction one, while the lowest amount was observed in essential oils. The amount of flavonoids of the decocted extract was higher than that of the infused one. The phenolic profile of C. nepeta infusion and decoction extracts revealed the presence of 28 and 13 peaks, respectively. Four phenolics compounds were identified in infusion (gallic acid (GA), rosmarinic acid (RA), caffeine (C) and caffeic acid (CA)) and two were identified in decoction (GA and RA). The chemical composition of essential oils revealed the presence of 29 compounds, accounting for the 99.7% of the total oils. Major compounds of essential oil (EO) were trans-menthone (50.06%) and pulegone (33.46%). Infusion and decoction extracts revealed an interesting antioxidant activity which correlates positively with their total phenolic contents. Conclusions These results showed that Calamintha nepeta could be considered as a valuable source of phenolics and essential oils with potent antioxidant activity.

Laurus nobilis L. Extracts against Paenibacillus larvae: Antimicrobial activity, antioxidant capacity, hygienic behavior and colony strength

The aim of this work was to compare the antimicrobial activity against Paenibacillus larvae and the antioxidant capacity of two Laurus nobilis L. extracts obtained by different extraction methods. The hydroalcoholic extract was moreover added as supplementary diet to bees in field conditions to test behavioural effects and colony strength. Both laurel extracts were subjected to different phytochemical analysis to identify their bioactive compounds. Antimicrobial activity was analyzed by the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) determination by means the agar dilution method. The hydroalcoholic extract (HE) was able to inhibit the bacterial growth of all P. larvae strains, with 580 µg/mL mean value. This better antibacterial activity in relation to the essential oil (EO) could be explained by the presence of some phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids, evidenced by characteristic bands resulting from the Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. Antioxidant activities of the extracts were evaluated by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical-scavenging ability and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays. The HE showed the highest antioxidant activity as measured by DPPH, with IC50 values of 257 ± 12 μg/mL. The FRAP assay method showed that the HE was 3-fold more effective reducing agent than the EO. When the bee colonies were supplied with laurel HE in sugar paste an improvement in their general condition was noticed, although neither the hygienic behavior nor the proportions of the breeding cells varied statistically due to the treatment. In conclusion, the inhibition power against P. larvae attributable to the phenolic compounds, the antioxidant capacity of the HE, and the non-lethal effects on adult honey bees on field trials suggest the HE of laurel as a promising substance for control American foulbrood disease.

Synergy between Essential Oils of Calamintha Species (Lamiaceae) and Antibiotics

The subject of the study was the investigation of the chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oils (EOs) isolated from Calamintha sylvatica, C. vardarensis, C. nepeta and C. glandulosa, as well as their antibacterial activity in combination with antibiotics. The quantitative and qualitative analysis of EOs was performed using the GC/FID and GC/MS methods. The antimicrobial activity of EOs against six standard bacterial strains and one strain of yeast was tested using the broth microdilution method, while the antimicrobial activity of a combination of essential oils and gentamicin/ciprofloxacin was tested by the checkerboard method. The dominant components (> 10%) of the essential oils were: cis-piperitone epoxide and menthone ( C. sylvatica), pulegone and menthone ( C. vardarensis), pulegone and piperitenone ( C. nepeta), pulegone, piperitenone, menthone and piperitone ( C. glandulosa). EOs did not exhibit significant antimicrobial activity except the essential oil of C. vardarensis which was selectively active against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC - 21.25 μg/mL). The overall effect of essential oil-antibiotic combinations varied from synergistic (FICI ≤ 0.5) to antagonistic (FICI ≥ 2) depending on the bacterial strain tested.

Chemical composition and radical scavenging activity of Amygdalus pedunculata Pall leaves' essential oil

The main objective of the current study was to investigate the components and radical scavenging activity of essential oil from Amygdalus pedunculata Pall leaves (APEO) extracted by an ultrasound-assisted method. Thirty-eight chemical components were identified in APEO using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). APEO primarily consisted of alcohols (36.82%), esters (28.81%), ketones (1.47%), alkanes (18.61%) and phenols (8.93%). The most abundant compound was n-hexanol (33.49%). The antioxidant activity of APEO was characterized for 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, hydroxyl radical (OH·), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), and superoxide anion radical (O₂·^-) scavenging and Fe³⁺ reduction, and the IC₅₀ values were 2.32, 2.65, 2.42, 5.24 and 4.19 mg/mL, respectively. The IC₅₀ values for H₂O₂ scavenging and Fe³⁺ reduction of APEO were less than those of ascorbic acid (Vc; 3.15 and 5.13 mg/mL). The results showed that APEO has a high radical scavenging activity.

Chemical composition of Mentha pulegium and Rosmarinus officinalis essential oils and their antileishmanial, antibacterial and antioxidant activities

The aim of the study was the determination of the chemical composition of Mentha pulegium L. and Rosmarinus officinalis L. essential oils and the evaluation of their antileishmanial, antibacterial and antioxidant activities. Essential oils (EOs) were isolated using steam distillation and the chemical composition was determined using GC-MS analysis. The antibacterial activity was tested against ten pathogenic strains using the diffusion method, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) by microtitration assay. The antioxidant activity was estimated by DPPH free radical scavenging ability and ferric-reducing power. The antileishmanial activity was tested against Leishmania major, Leishmania tropica and Leishmania infantum using MTT (3-(4.5-dimethylthiazol-2yl)-2.5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. The yield of essential oils (v/w %) M. puleguim and R. officinalis based on dry weight were 5.4 and 2.7% respectively. GC/MS analysis of R. officinalis essential oil (ROEO) revealed the presence of 29 components, mainly represented by oxygenated monoterpenes (63.743%) and hydrocarbons monoterpenes (21.231%). Mentha pulegium essential oil (MPEO) revealed 21 components, mainly represented by oxygenated monoterpenes (83.865%). The major components of ROEO were α-pinene (14.076), 1,8-Cineole (23.673) and camphor (18.743), while menthone (21.164) and pulegone (40.98) were the main major components of MPEO. M. pulegium and R. officinalis EOs showed a significant antioxidant activity compared with ascorbic acid and Trolox to the IC₅₀ values of 58.27 ± 2.72 and 85.74 ± 7.57 μg/mL respectively revealed by reducing power assay. As for the antibacterial effect, the highest zone diameters were shown by the MPEO against Bacillus subtilis (30 ± 1.43 mm) and Proteus mirabilis (28 ± 1.32 mm). These values are significantly important compared with those of the commercialized antibiotic (Erythromycin and Chlorophenicol). The lowest MIC and MBC values were obtained with MPEO against S. aureus MBLA (MIC = MBC = 0.25% (v/v)). While, ROEO has exhibited a bactericidal effect against Listeria monocytogenes (MIC = MBC = 0.5% (v/v)), Bacillus subtilis (MIC = MBC = 1% (v/v)) and Escherichia coli (MIC = MBC = 1% (v/v)). For the antileishmanial effect, ROEO is the most active against L. major (IC₅₀ = 1.2 ± 0.36 μg/mL. While, the MPEO has the most leishmanicidal effect against L. major (IC₅₀ = 1.3 ± 0.45 μg/mL). These findings show that the EOs of M. pulegium and R. officinalis are good sources of bioactive molecules that could have potential applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Commercial Essential Oils as Potential Antimicrobials to Treat Skin Diseases

Essential oils are one of the most notorious natural products used for medical purposes. Combined with their popular use in dermatology, their availability, and the development of antimicrobial resistance, commercial essential oils are often an option for therapy. At least 90 essential oils can be identified as being recommended for dermatological use, with at least 1500 combinations. This review explores the fundamental knowledge available on the antimicrobial properties against pathogens responsible for dermatological infections and compares the scientific evidence to what is recommended for use in common layman's literature. Also included is a review of combinations with other essential oils and antimicrobials. The minimum inhibitory concentration dilution method is the preferred means of determining antimicrobial activity. While dermatological skin pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus have been well studied, other pathogens such as Streptococcus pyogenes, Propionibacterium acnes, Haemophilus influenzae, and Brevibacterium species have been sorely neglected. Combination studies incorporating oil blends, as well as interactions with conventional antimicrobials, have shown that mostly synergy is reported. Very few viral studies of relevance to the skin have been made. Encouragement is made for further research into essential oil combinations with other essential oils, antimicrobials, and carrier oils.

Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi and its Main Essential Oil Constituent Pulegone: Biological Activities and Chemistry

Medicinal plants play an important role in the treatment of a wide range of diseases, even if their chemical constituents are not always completely recognized. Observations on their use and efficacy significantly contribute to the disclosure of their therapeutic properties. Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi is an aromatic herb with a mint-oregano flavor, used in the Mediterranean areas as a traditional medicine. It has an extensive range of biological activities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory, as well as anti-ulcer and insecticidal properties. This study aims to review the scientific findings and research reported to date on Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi that prove many of the remarkable various biological actions, effects and some uses of this species as a source of bioactive natural compounds. On the other hand, pulegone, the major chemical constituent of Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi essential oil, has been reported to exhibit numerous bioactivities in cells and animals. Thus, this integrated overview also surveys and interprets the present knowledge of chemistry and analysis of this oxygenated monoterpene, as well as its beneficial bioactivities. Areas for future research are suggested.