Insects as ingredients for bakery goods. A comparison study of H. illucens, A. domestica and T. molitor flours

Application of edible insects to food products: A review on the functionality, bioactivity and digestibility of insect proteins under high-pressure/ultrasound processing

Edible insect products are recognized for their high-quality protein content and an array of essential nutrients, including minerals and fatty acids. As the demand for sustainable protein sources grows, insect-based foods are gaining attention as a viable solution to help address global food security. Emerging technologies including high-pressure processing (HPP) and ultrasound (US) have the potential to influence the key functional properties of insect proteins-such as solubility, gelling ability, foamability, and emulsifying capacity-making them more suitable for incorporation into various food products. Additionally, the physicochemical properties and functionality of these proteins can be altered by digestive processes. This review focuses on the physicochemical and functional properties, as well as the biological activities, of edible insects modified by HHP and US technologies. It also explores, for the first time, how digestion impacts the quality and biological activities of insect-based products.

Introducing menus of three weekly insect- or plant-based dinner meals slightly reduced meat consumption in Danish families: Results of a randomized intervention study

The environmental concerns associated with excess meat consumption have emphasized the need for sustainable alternatives. Edible insects offer a promising alternative due to their environmental efficiency and nutritious profile, but their widespread adoption in Western diets remains a challenge. The objective of the study was to investigate the impact of exposing families (parents and children) to insect-based or plant-based dinner menus on dietary pattern, meat intake, and protein intake over a six-week intervention period. The study was a two-arm randomized equivalence trial comparing an insect-based menu to a plant-based control. Families received either an insect or plant-based menu to replace meat in dinner meals three times a week for six weeks, aiming to replace 20% of their meat protein intake. Dietary changes were assessed through dietary registrations and daily questionnaires. Both adults and children maintained their estimated daily total protein intake, while reducing daily meat protein intake. Neither group met the 20% weekly meat replacement goal. In the insect-based menu group, adults and children reached an average 5.5% and 2.3% weekly meat replacement, respectively. In the plant-based menu group, adults and children replaced 9.0% and 4.3%, respectively. Meat attachment had an effect on meat protein intake. The menus slightly reduced meat protein intake. The weekly frequency of meat meals slightly declined, but portions remained the same. By enhancing insect and plant-based food quality and understanding consumer behavior, insect- and plant-based products have the potential to be a complementary alternative in a sustainable dietary transition without sacrificing nutrition. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT05156853; clinicaltrials. gov/study/NCT05156853.

Exploring Edible Insects: From Sustainable Nutrition to Pasta and Noodle Applications-A Critical Review

Edible insects provide an alternative source of high-quality proteins, essential lipids, minerals, and vitamins. However, they lack the acceptability and consumption rates of more common staple foods. In contrast, pasta and noodles are globally appreciated foods that are consumed across various cultures. These products contribute greatly to the population's energy intake but generally lack essential nutrients. Recently, edible insects have gained in popularity due to their numerous benefits, both environmental and nutritional. Current research indicates that incorporating edible insect ingredients into pasta and noodle formulations enhances their nutritional quality by increasing protein and fiber content and reducing carbohydrates. However, adding new ingredients to enrich common foods often carries technological and sensory challenges, such as changes in processing parameters, texture, flavor, and appearance. Technology assessment, scientific research, information campaigns, and public policies can help overcome these issues. This review aims to summarize the benefits of entomophagy (the consumption of insects as food) for sustainability, nutrition, and health; highlight the potential of pasta and noodles as carriers of nutritious and bioactive ingredients, including insects; and critically address the advancements in insect-enriched pasta and noodle technology, identifying current challenges, knowledge gaps, and opportunities.

The Commercial Application of Insect Protein in Food Products: A Product Audit Based on Online Resources

Insect protein has received considerable attention as an alternative to conventional animal proteins with its high nutritional contents and eco-friendly credentials. Exploring commercially available insect-protein-enhanced foods, this study aims to profile and compare such products in the ultra-processed category with products protein-enhanced with dairy (e.g., milk and whey) and plants (e.g., pea and rice). A global product audit was conducted drawing from English-language online retail portals to determine the product formats and statistically compare their nutritional contents with products fortified with non-insect proteins. The results show that four categories-flour/powder, pasta/noodle, starch-based snacks (e.g., chips, crackers, and cookies), and energy bars-are involved with food enhanced with insect protein. Flour/powder and pasta/noodles with insects demonstrated comparable protein contents to non-insect equivalents, highlighting insects' potential as effective protein sources. However, insect protein's performances in snacks and energy bars were less favourable, with significantly lower protein contents compared to products enhanced with non-insect sources. This may be attributed to the high fat content of insects, which may also contribute to undesirable flavours in complex foods, limiting their usage. The study highlights the need for industry innovation and scientific collaboration to overcome the challenges to widely applying insects as food ingredients, offering benefits for both the industry and consumers.

Effect of the Addition of Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) on the Physicochemical, Antioxidative, and Sensory Properties of Oatmeal Cookies

Edible insects are receiving increased attention as a new food source, although research on their implementation in confectionary products remains scarce. The study analyzed the chemical composition, physical parameters, antioxidative, and sensory characteristics of oatmeal cookies reformulated with yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor L.; TM) at 0% (TM0), 10% (TM10), and 30% (TM30). The inclusion of TM in the cookie recipe increased the protein and fat content, improved the ratio of n-6/n-3 acids, and raised oleic acid levels while reducing palmitic acid. Oatmeal cookies were rich in K and P, and including TM significantly increased the content of most minerals, except for Mn and Na. The cookies held significant antioxidant capacity that increased as the concentration of TM increased due to hydrophilic antioxidants. Although lightness decreased with the increase in mealworm substitution, the yellowness, chroma, and hue angle remained similar for TM0 and TM10. The TM30 cookies were significantly darker and softer, which was further confirmed by panelists. The cookie formulation effectively masked the taste and smell of TM since there were no evident differences between the control and TM10 cookies. Cookies with TM30 received high enough ratings to be considered attractive if differentiated sensory characteristics are desired.

The Impact of Freeze-Dried Tenebrio molitor Larvae on the Quality, Safety Parameters, and Sensory Acceptability of Wheat Bread

The research context involves analyzing the potential benefits derived from integrating insect protein into everyday food items. Utilizing methods consistent with established food science protocols, wheat bread was prepared with variations of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% Tenebrio molitor larvae powder, derived from larvae cultivated on brewery spent grain. A substrate selected for its superior nutritional content and a substrate with agar-agar gels were used. The tests included basic bread tests; sugar, acrylamide, amino, and fatty acid (FA) tests; and sensory acceptability. The results have shown that the acrylamide levels in bread with larvae remained below harmful thresholds, suggesting that using T. molitor can be a safe alternative protein source. The incorporation of powdered T. molitor larvae (p-TMLs) into bread was observed to increase certain sugar levels, such as glucose, particularly at higher larval concentrations. The addition of T. molitor significantly raised the protein and fat levels in bread. The inclusion of larvae enriched the bread with essential amino acids, enhancing the nutritional value of the bread significantly. The FA profile of the bread was altered by the inclusion of p-TMLs, increasing the levels of monounsaturated FAs. Despite the nutritional benefits, higher concentrations of larvae decreased the sensory acceptability of the bread. This suggests that there is a balance to be found between enhancing the nutritional content and maintaining consumer appeal. These findings highlight the potential for using p-TMLs as a sustainable, nutritious ingredient in bread making, although the sensory qualities at higher concentrations might limit consumer acceptance.

Comprehensive Analysis of Yoghurt Made with the Addition of Yellow Mealworm Powder (Tenebrio molitor)

The study aimed to be able to incorporate mealworm powder into yoghurts to increase protein content. Tenebrio molitor is gaining popularity as an alternative protein source. In the face of a growing human population and the associated challenges of sustainable nutrition, mealworms offer a promising solution. The mealworm is distinguished by its high protein content and for being rich in essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, making it a valuable component of diet. Among others, chemical composition, colour, texture, degree of syneresis, sensory analysis, and microbiological analysis were analysed. As expected, the addition of insect powder increased the protein content from 4.91% (0 TM) to 7.41% (5 TM). It also increased the fat content from 1.67% (0 TM) to 3.88% (5 TM). Furthermore, the addition of mealworm powder resulted in a significant change in the colour of the yoghurt to a darker colour, due to the dark brown colour of the powder. Food with added edible insects is increasingly available but is not always popular due to cultural and psychological barriers. Sensory analysis of yoghurts has shown that the more powder that is added, the less appealing the product becomes and the more bitter the taste.

Macrotermes subhylanus flour inclusion in biscuits: Effects on nutritional, sensorial and microbial characteristics

As the world's population expands, edible insects have been proposed as a food source that might address issues related to nutrition, health, the environment, and the economy. This study aimed to create a novel biscuit by adding Macrotermes subhylanus (M. Subhylanus) flour to wheat flour in various concentrations (5,10, 15 and 20 %). The moisture content of the insect composite flours varied between 6.83 % and 7.76 %, whereas the moisture content of the biscuits ranged from 2.86 % to 7.90 %. A significant difference (p < 0.05) was noted in the protein content of both the composite flours and biscuits as the concentration of insect flour increased, with values ranging from 15.03 % to 21.52 % for the flours and 17.38 % to 20.63 % for the biscuits. The lightness (L*) of the composite flours significantly decreased (p < 0.05) with higher additions of edible insect flour, whereas the redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) attributes did not show any statistical differences (p > 0.05). The biscuits were generally darker than the composite flours, as indicated by substantially lower L* values. The water activity of the biscuits was between 0.44 and 0.67. Sensory evaluation revealed that the substitution level (up to 15 %) is ideal for preparing acceptable insect-based biscuits. The panellist perceived no significant differences (p > 0.05) in terms of the texture between the insect-enriched biscuits and the control, except for MZ-20. The absence of pathogenic microogranisms in all baked biscuits containing edible insect flour highlights the effectiveness of heat treatment, ensuring that the biscuits meet microbiological safety guidelines. Additionally, Macrotermes subhylanus flour shows promise as a novel functional ingredient for the food industry.

Insect Protein as a Component of Meat Analogue Burger

Researchers are exploring solutions to meet the growing demand for protein due to the expected increase in global population by 2050. Interest in alternative protein sources like insects has risen, driven by concerns about environmental impact and the need for sustainable food production. This study aimed to develop and evaluate the physicochemical properties of soy-protein-based burgers enriched with insect protein from Alphitobius diaperinus. Three formulations were developed: a control (B0) and burgers with 5% (B5) and 10% (B10) insect protein-Whole Buffalo Powder (WBP). The results showed that adding insect protein decreased the burger analogue's pH. A clear trend was observed of increasing total lipids and saturated fatty acids (SFA) and decreasing monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) as the WBP concentration increased from 0% to 10%. No significant differences with increasing WBP concentration in the protein content of the burger analogue, as well as the cooking yield, were noted. The WBP addition had a notable effect on the color change, especially a decrease in brightness (L*). It was shown that as the WBP concentration increased, there were no significant differences in the texture profile of the burger analogues. The formulation with 5% WBP concentration was the most acceptable in sensory analysis.

Effect of fortifying sorghum and wheat with Longhorn grasshopper (Ruspolia differens) powder on nutritional composition and consumer acceptability of biscuits

This study aimed at improving the nutrient composition and protein quality of biscuits made from sorghum and wheat through fortification with Longhorn Ruspolia differens powder (RDP) for use as a supplementary food targeting children vulnerable to protein-energy malnutrition (PEM). Ten biscuit formulations were prepared by replacing a part of wheat and sorghum-wheat flours with 5, 15, 20, and 40% RDP. To establish the nutrient content of biscuits, proximate and mineral compositions were determined. The amino acid composition, reactive lysine and in vitro protein digestibility were determined for protein quality. Compositing wheat or wheat-sorghum biscuits with RDP increased the protein, fat, ash, and crude fiber by percentages as high as 118, 37, 133, and 573%, respectively. Mineral content increased with, iron, zinc, and potassium as high as 161, 219, and 169%, respectively. The lysine, reactive lysine and in vitro protein digestibility of the fortified biscuits increased significantly, relative to the 100% cereal biscuits. Fortification with RDP significantly improved the amino acid content of the biscuits but had a marginal effect on improvement of the lysine score and did not meet the reference pattern for children aged 3-10 years. The Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) of wheat-sorghum and wheat biscuits improved by 6% to 47% and 2% to 33%, respectively, compared to the control biscuits. The fortified biscuits were liked by the consumers. The RDP-fortified biscuits have the potential to alleviate PME in developing countries.

Wheat Bread Enriched with House Cricket Powder (Acheta domesticus L.) as an Alternative Protein Source

The house cricket (Acheta domesticus L.) is one of four edible insect species introduced to the EU market as a novel food and alternative protein source. Innovative products, such as cricket flour, are increasingly appearing on supermarket shelves and can offer an alternative to traditional cereals, while providing the body with many valuable nutrients of comparable quality to those found in meat and fish. The aim of this study was to investigate the possibility of using cricket powder as a substitute for wheat flour in the production of bread. The physicochemical properties of cricket powder were evaluated in comparison to wheat flour. As a result of technological studies, bread compositions with 5%, 10% and 15% replacements of wheat flour by cricket powder were designed and their quality characteristics (physicochemical, sensory and microbiological) were evaluated. Cricket powder was characterised by a higher protein (63% vs. 13.5%) and fat (16.3% vs. 1.16%) content and a lower carbohydrate (9.8% vs. 66%) and fibre (7.8% vs. 9.5%) content as compared to wheat flour. The tested preparations had a similar pH (6.9 and 6.8, respectively, for cricket powder and flour) and fat absorption capacity (0.14 vs. 0.27 g oil/g powder, respectively, for cricket powder and flour) but different water holding capacities and completely different colour parameters. All breads had good microbiological quality after baking and during 7 days of storage. In instrumental tests, the 10 and 15% replacements of wheat flour by cricket powder affected the darker colour of the breads and caused a significant increase in the hardness of the breads. The research has shown that the optimal level of replacement, which does not significantly affect the physiochemical and sensory characteristics, is 5% cricket powder in the bread recipe. Considering the results obtained and the fact that insects provide a sufficient supply of energy and protein in the human diet, are a source of fibre, vitamins and micronutrients, and have a high content of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, the suitability of cricket powder for protein enrichment of bakery products is confirmed.

Characterization of wheat dough and Chinese steamed bread using mealworm powder formulated with medium-gluten and whole wheat flour

BACKGROUND

Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) larvae are nutritious edible insects and exhibit the potential to act as protein substitutes in food products. In this study, we added mealworm powder as a substitute to medium-gluten wheat and whole wheat flours to enhance the quality of baked products. We compared the pasting, farinograph and extensograph properties of medium-gluten wheat and whole wheat flours replaced with different concentrations of mealworm powder to explore the interactions between flour and mealworm powder.

RESULTS

Mealworm powder changed the pasting characteristics of medium-gluten wheat and whole wheat flours. After adding 20% mealworm powder, the pasting temperature of the medium-gluten wheat flour remained unchanged (approximately 89.9 °C), while the pasting temperature of whole wheat flour increased from 88.83 to 90.27 °C. Water absorption of medium-gluten and whole wheat flours exhibited a decreasing trend with increasing mealworm powder concentrations. Mealworm powder substitution resulted in stronger medium-gluten dough but exerted an opposite effect on the farinograph properties of whole wheat dough. Mealworm powder substitution decreased the stretching resistance of medium-gluten dough but increased that of whole wheat dough. With an increase in the concentration of mealworm powder, the specific volume of medium-gluten wheat steamed bread significantly increased from 1.69 mL g-1 (M0) to 3.31 mL g-1 (M10) whereas that of whole wheat steamed bread increased from 1.64 mL g-1 (M0) to 2.34 mL g-1 (M15). The addition of mealworm powder increased the protein, dietary fiber, lipid and sodium contents of steamed bread samples.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides a reference for the rheological properties of medium-gluten wheat and whole wheat flours substituted with mealworm powder and supports the addition of insects as a protein source in food products. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Quality and staling characteristics of white bread fortified with lysozyme-hydrolyzed mealworm powder (Tenebrio molitor L.)

Edible insects have a low environmental impact but are rich in nutrients and have been promoted as alternative protein sources. However, adding insect flour to bread negatively affects the overall quality, especially loaf volume and textural properties. Furthermore, relevant studies on chitin are limited. Therefore, this study examined chitin hydrolysis using lysozymes to enhance the quality characteristics in defatted mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) powder (DF-M)-supplemented bread. The chitin hydrolysis degree by lysozymes was evaluated using the 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid assay and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The amount of chitin oligomers increased with time, and no significant difference in the hydrolysis efficiency between water and 400 mM acetate buffer was observed. Enzymatic hydrolysis improved the DF-M water- and oil-binding and antioxidant capacities. In addition, chitin hydrolysis increased the volume and softened the texture of white bread. In particular, bread supplemented with DF-M hydrolyzed for 4 h at 10 % had the highest moisture content among the mealworm-added bread groups during storage for 5 days. Moreover, sensory evaluation showed a positive effect of chitin hydrolysis on acceptability. Our findings indicate that chitin hydrolysis can improve the quality of bread containing insect additives. In conclusion, this study provides novel insights into producing high-quality and functional bakery products from edible insects by the enzymatic hydrolysis of edible insect powders and could expand the applications of edible insects as food ingredients.

The Fatty Acid Compositions, Irritation Properties, and Potential Applications of Teleogryllus mitratus Oil in Nanoemulsion Development

This study aimed to characterize and investigate the potential of the oils from Gryllus bimaculatus, Teleogryllus mitratus, and Acheta domesticus to be used in nanoemulsions. The oils were extracted by a cold press method and characterized for their fatty acid profiles. Their irritation effects on the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) were evaluated, along with investigations of solubility and the required hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (RHLB). Various parameters impacting nanoemulsion generation using high-pressure homogenization were investigated. The findings revealed that G. bimaculatus yielded the highest oil content (24.58% w/w), followed by T. mitratus (20.96% w/w) and A. domesticus (15.46% w/w). Their major fatty acids were palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids. All oils showed no irritation, suggesting safety for topical use. The RHLB values of each oil were around six-seven. However, they could be successfully developed into nanoemulsions using various surfactants. All cricket oils could be used for the nanoemulsion preparation, but T. mitratus yielded the smallest internal droplet size with acceptable PDI and zeta potential. Nanoemulsion was found to significantly enhance the antioxidant and anti-skin wrinkle of the T. mitratus oil. These findings pointed to the possible use of cricket oils in nanoemulsions, which could be used in various applications, including topical and cosmetic formulations.

New Insights into the Comprehensive System of Thermodynamic Sensors and Electronic Nose and Its Practical Applications in Dough Fermentation Monitoring

This study focuses on an applicability of the device designed for monitoring dough fermentation. The device combines a complex system of thermodynamic sensors (TDSs) with an electronic nose (E-nose). The device's behavior was tested in experiments with dough samples. The configuration of the sensors in the thermodynamic system was explored and their response to various positions of the heat source was investigated. When the distance of the heat source and its intensity from two thermodynamic sensors changes, the output signal of the thermodynamic system changes as well. Thus, as the distance of the heat source decreases or the intensity increases, there is a higher change in the output signal of the system. The linear trend of this change reaches an R2 value of 0.936. Characteristics of the doughs prepared from traditional and non-traditional flours were successfully detected using the electronic nose. To validate findings, the results of the measurements were compared with signals from the rheofermentometer Rheo F4, and the correlation between the output signals was closely monitored. The data after statistical evaluation show that the measurements using thermodynamic sensors and electronic nose directly correlate the most with the measured values of the fermenting dough volume. Pearson's correlation coefficient for TDSs and rheofermentometer reaches up to 0.932. The E-nose signals also correlate well with dough volume development, up to 0.973. The data and their analysis provided by this study declare that the used system configuration and methods are fully usable for this type of food analysis and also could be usable in other types of food based on the controlled fermentation. The system configuration, based on the result, will be also used in future studies.

Consumption of edible insects and insect-based foods: A systematic review of sensory properties and evoked emotional response

Low consumer acceptance of edible insects and insect-based products is one of the main barriers to the successful implementation of entomophagy in Western countries. This rejection is mainly caused by consumers' negative emotional responses, psychological/personality traits, and attitudes toward food choices. However, as the role of intrinsic product characteristics on such food choices has not been adequately studied, a systematic review was conducted following the PRISMA method, to analyze studies that have assessed hedonic evaluations, sensory profiling, or emotional responses to edible insects or insect-based products. The majority of studies performed with whole insects and insect flour highlight that insect-based products are more negatively evaluated than control products. Although the sensory properties of insects are affected by species and processing conditions, they are generally negative across sensory dimensions. In particular, insects and insect-based products are generally associated with odor and flavor/taste attributes that are related to old/spoiled food. These negative attributes can be linked to the fat fraction of edible insects, with insect oils being very negatively evaluated by consumers. On the other hand, defatted fractions and deodorized oils are not associated with these negative attributes, further supporting the hypothesis that the fat fraction is responsible for the negative odor and flavor/taste attributes. However, there is still a lack of studies assessing the sensory profile of edible insects and insect-based products, as well as consumers' emotional responses to their consumption. Future studies should focus on the effects of different processing conditions, products incorporating insect fractions (namely protein concentrates/isolates and defatted fractions), and evaluation by target consumer groups.

Effects of the Incorporation of Male Honey Bees on Dough Properties and on Wheat Flour Bread's Quality Characteristics

Two different levels (5 and 10%) of male honey bees (drones) in powder form were incorporated into wheat flour, and their impact on dough properties and on bread-quality characteristics were investigated. The incorporation of the drone powder to the wheat flour caused a decrease in the extensibility and energy of the dough in the extensograph and an increase in the dough's maximum resistance with increasing levels of the added drone powder. The elongational viscosity values of the dough fortified with drone powder were significantly higher than those of the control wheat flour dough. The breads supplemented with 10% drone powder exhibited lower lightness (L*) values compared to the control bread. The addition of drone powder led to an increase in the total dietary fiber content and insoluble dietary fiber content in the fortified bread. Significant differences in the specific volume values were observed between the control bread and the corresponding ones with 10% drone powder. Upon storage, the moisture content of the crumb of the control bread and of the fortified breads were both significantly decreased, while the addition of the drone powder to the wheat flour bread increased the crumb hardness and gumminess but decreased the cohesiveness of the breads.

Insects as Valuable Sources of Protein and Peptides: Production, Functional Properties, and Challenges

As the global population approaches 10 billion by 2050, the critical need to ensure food security becomes increasingly pronounced. In response to the urgent problems posed by global population growth, our study adds to the growing body of knowledge in the field of alternative proteins, entomophagy, insect-based bioactive proteolysates, and peptides. It also provides novel insights with essential outcomes for guaranteeing a safe and sustainable food supply in the face of rising global population demands. These results offer insightful information to researchers and policymakers tackling the intricate relationship between population expansion and food supplies. Unfortunately, conventional agricultural practices are proving insufficient in meeting these demands. Pursuing alternative proteins and eco-friendly food production methods has gained urgency, embracing plant-based proteins, cultivated meat, fermentation, and precision agriculture. In this context, insect farming emerges as a promising strategy to upcycle agri-food waste into nutritious protein and fat, meeting diverse nutritional needs sustainably. A thorough analysis was conducted to evaluate the viability of insect farming, investigate insect nutrition, and review the techniques and functional properties of protein isolation. A review of peptide generation from insects was conducted, covering issues related to hydrolysate production, protein extraction, and peptide identification. The study addresses the nutritional value and global entomophagy habits to elucidate the potential of insects as sources of peptides and protein. This inquiry covers protein and hydrolysate production, highlighting techniques and bioactive peptides. Functional properties of insect proteins' solubility, emulsification, foaming, gelation, water-holding, and oil absorption are investigated. Furthermore, sensory aspects of insect-fortified foods as well as challenges, including Halal and Kosher considerations, are explored across applications. Our review underscores insects' promise as sustainable protein and peptide contributors, offering recommendations for further research to unlock their full potential.

Edible Insects: A New Sustainable Nutritional Resource Worth Promoting

Edible insects are a highly nutritious source of protein and are enjoyed by people all over the world. Insects contain various other nutrients and beneficial compounds, such as lipids, vitamins and minerals, chitin, phenolic compounds, and antimicrobial peptides, which contribute to good health. The practice of insect farming is far more resource-efficient compared to traditional agriculture and animal husbandry, requiring less land, energy, and water, and resulting in a significantly lower carbon footprint. In fact, insects are 12 to 25 times more efficient than animals in converting low-protein feed into protein. When it comes to protein production per unit area, insect farming only requires about one-eighth of the land needed for beef production. Moreover, insect farming generates minimal waste, as insects can consume food and biomass that would otherwise go to waste, contributing to a circular economy that promotes resource recycling and reuse. Insects can be fed with agricultural waste, such as unused plant stems and food scraps. Additionally, the excrement produced by insects can be used as fertilizer for crops, completing the circular chain. Despite the undeniable sustainability and nutritional benefits of consuming insects, widespread acceptance of incorporating insects into our daily diets still has a long way to go. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the nutritional value of edible insects, the development of farming and processing technologies, and the problems faced in the marketing of edible insect products and insect foods to improve the reference for how people choose edible insects.

Legal situation and consumer acceptance of insects being eaten as human food in different nations across the world-A comprehensive review

Insect consumption is a traditional practice in many countries. Currently, the urgent need for ensuring food sustainability and the high pressure from degrading environment are urging food scientists to rethink the possibility of introducing edible insects as a promising food type. However, due to the lack of the standardized legislative rules and the adequate scientific data that demonstrate the safety of edible insects, many countries still consider it a grey area to introduce edible insects into food supply chains. In this review, we comprehensively reviewed the legal situation, consumer willingness, acceptance, and the knowledge on edible insect harvesting, processing as well as their safety concerns. We found that, despite the great advantage of introducing edible insects in food supply chains, the legal situation and consumer acceptance for edible insects are still unsatisfactory and vary considerably in different countries, which mostly depend on geographical locations and cultural backgrounds involving psychological, social, religious, and anthropological factors. Besides, the safety concern of edible insect consumption is still a major issue hurdling the promotion of edible insects, which is particularly concerning for countries with no practice in consuming insects. Fortunately, the situation is improving. So far, some commercial insect products like energy bars, burgers, and snack foods have emerged in the market. Furthermore, the European Union has also recently issued a specific item for regulating new foods, which is believed to establish an authorized procedure to promote insect-based foods and should be an important step for marketizing edible insects in the near future.

Effect of Adding Different Commercial Propylene Glycol Alginates on the Properties of Mealworm-Flour-Formulated Bread and Steamed Bread

Mealworm-flour-formulated flour-based products have gained increasing attention; however, their textural properties need to be improved. Propylene glycol alginate (PGA) is a commercial food additive with excellent emulsifying and stabilizing capabilities. We evaluated the effects of adding three commercially available PGAs (0.3% w/w, as food additive) on the properties of 10% concentration of mealworm-flour-formulated bread and steamed bread. The results showed that, compared with the control (2.17 mL/g), three PGA brands (Q, M, and Y) significantly increased the specific volume of the bread to 3.34, 3.40, and 3.36 mL/g, respectively. Only PGA from brand Q significantly improved the specific volumes of bread and steamed bread. The color of the bread was affected by the Maillard reaction. The addition of PGAs also augmented the moisture content of the fresh bread crumbs and steamed bread crumbs. All three PGAs improved the textural properties of bread and steamed bread. During storage, PGA addition delayed the staling of bread and steamed bread. In summary, our study showed that the addition of 0.3% PGA from three different producers improved bread properties, with PGA from brand Q having the most substantial effect. PGA had a more substantial effect on bread than steamed bread. Our results provide a theoretical basis to guide the development of insect-formulated flour-based products.

Unravelling the nutritional and health benefits of wheat bread enriched with meat powder from laying hen fed diet with insect (Hermetia illucens) meal

Wheat bread is among stable foods that are nutritionally imbalanced, thus enrichment is crucial. We evaluated the nutritional impact of high-valued wheat bread enriched with varying levels of meat powder from hen fed diet with insect (Hermetia illucens)-based meal. Crude protein and ash in bread increased with increasing inclusion of meat powder. Limiting amino acids like lysine and threonine in enriched bread products increased by 3.0-4.5 and 1.8-3.1-folds, respectively. Omega 3 fatty acids were significantly enhanced in bread fortified with meat powder. Vitamins (retinol, nicotinic acid, and pantothenic acid) were significantly increased in supplemented bread products. Iron, zinc, and calcium increased by 1.1, 1.2 and 3.0-folds in enriched bread with 30% meat powder. Colour, flavour and overall acceptability of breads prepared with 25 and 30% meat powder were highly ranked. Our findings demonstrate that meat powder (i.e., from hen fed insect-based diets) enrichment would provide added health and nutritional benefits to bread products without having adverse effects on any functional or sensory properties. Thus, this could be a novel strategy and trend for improving bread products, that might generate increasing demand for a healthier consumer-oriented lifestyle.

Aroma characterization and consumer acceptance of four cookie products enriched with insect (Ruspolia differens) meal

This research aims to advance knowledge on the impact of four processing methods on volatile compounds from insect-based baked products (cookies) to provide insights on consumer acceptance. Samples were exposed to double step enzyme digestive test, volatiles characterized through headspace analysis, while semi-trained panelists were recruited for the sensory test. Blanched and boiled samples of R. differens had considerably higher digestibility (83.42% and 81.61%, respectively) (p < 0.05) than toasted and deep-fried samples. Insect-based cookie products integrated with blanched and boiled R. differens meal expressed higher digestibility (80.41% and 78.73%, respectively) that was comparable to that of commercial cookie products (control cookies-CTRC with 88.22%). Key volatile compounds common between the various cookie products included, nonanal, octanal, methyl-pyrazine, hexanal, tetradecane, 2-pentylfuran, 2-heptanone, 2E-octenal, 2E-heptenal and dodecane. Among the volatile compounds, pleasant aromas observed were 2E,4E-dodecadienal, pentanal, octanal, methyl pyrazine, furfurals, benzaldehyde, and 2-pentyl furan, which were more pronounced in cookies fortified with boiled, toasted and deep-fried R. differens meal. There was a greater resemblance of sensory characteristics between control cookies and those fortified with deep-fried R. differens. These findings underscore the significant influence of aroma compounds on consumer acceptability and preference for insect-based baked food products, which allows for future process-modification of innate aromas of insect-based meals to produce high-valued pleasant consumer driven market products.

Edible insects as ingredients in food products: nutrition, functional properties, allergenicity of insect proteins, and processing modifications

Edible insect products contain high-quality protein and other nutrients, including minerals and fatty acids. The consumption of insect food products is considered a future trend and a potential strategy that could greatly contribute to meeting food needs worldwide. However, insect proteins have the potential to be allergenic to insect consumers. In this review, the nutritional value and allergy risk of insect-derived foods, and the immune responses elicited by insect allergens are summarized and discussed. Tropomyosin and arginine kinase are the most important and widely known insect allergens, which induce Th2-biased immune responses and reduced the activity of CD4+T regulatory cells. Besides, food processing methods have been effectively improving the nutrients and characteristics of insect products. However, limited reviews systematically address the immune reactions to allergens present in edible insect proteins following treatment with food processing technologies. The conventional/novel food processing techniques and recent advances in reducing the allergenicity of insect proteins are discussed in this review, focusing on the structural changes of allergens and immune regulation.

How Rearing Systems for Various Species of Flies Benefit Humanity

Flies (Diptera) have played a prominent role in human history, and several fly species are reared at different scales and for different beneficial purposes worldwide. Here, we review the historical importance of fly rearing as a foundation for insect rearing science and technology and synthesize information on the uses and rearing diets of more than 50 fly species in the families Asilidae, Calliphoridae, Coelopidae, Drosophilidae, Ephydridae, Muscidae, Sarcophagidae, Stratiomyidae, Syrphidae, Tachinidae, Tephritidae, and Tipulidae. We report more than 10 uses and applications of reared flies to the well-being and progress of humanity. We focus on the fields of animal feed and human food products, pest control and pollination services, medical wound therapy treatments, criminal investigations, and on the development of several branches of biology using flies as model organisms. We highlight the relevance of laboratory-reared Drosophila melanogaster Meigen as a vehicle of great scientific discoveries that have shaped our understanding of many biological systems, including the genetic basis of heredity and of terrible diseases such as cancer. We point out key areas of fly-rearing research such as nutrition, physiology, anatomy/morphology, genetics, genetic pest management, cryopreservation, and ecology. We conclude that fly rearing is an activity with great benefits for human well-being and should be promoted for future advancement in diverse and innovative methods of improving existing and emerging problems to humanity.

Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Composition of Nut Bars with Addition of Various Edible Insect Flours

Edible insects represent a new functional source of nutrients that can contribute to solving nutritional deficiency problems. The antioxidant potential and bioactive compounds of nut bars with the addition of three edible insects were evaluated. Acheta domesticus L., Alphitobius diaperinus P. and Tenebrio molitor L. flours were used. A 30% share of insect flour in the bars resulted in significantly greater antioxidant activity (TPC increased from 190.19 for standard bars to 309.45 mg catechin/100 g for bars with 30% addition of cricket flour). Insect flour contributed significantly to an increase in 2,5-dihydrobenzoic acid (from 0.12 for bars with a 15% share of buffalo worm flour to 0.44 mg/100 g in the case of bars with a 30% share of cricket flour) and chlorogenic acid in all bars (from 0.58 for bars with a 15% share of cricket flour to 3.28 mg/100 g for bars with a 30% addition of buffalo worm flour), compared to the standard. The highest content of tocopherols was found in bars with cricket flour, compared to standard bars (43.57 and 24.06 mg/100 g of fat, respectively). The dominant sterol in bars enriched with insect powder was cholesterol. The highest amount of it was found in cricket bars, and the lowest in mealworm bars (64.16 and 21.62 mg/100 g of fat, respectively). The enrichment of nut bars with insect flours raises the levels of valuable phytosterols in the final product. The addition of edible insect flours reduced the perception of most sensory attributes of the bars, compared to the standard bar.

Alternative Protein Sources and Novel Foods: Benefits, Food Applications and Safety Issues

The increasing size of the human population and the shortage of highly valuable proteinaceous ingredients has prompted the international community to scout for new, sustainable, and natural protein resources from invertebrates (e.g., insects) and underutilized legume crops, unexploited terrestrial and aquatic weeds, and fungi. Insect proteins are known for their nutritional value, being rich in proteins with a good balance of essential amino acids and being a valuable source of essential fatty acids and trace elements. Unconventional legume crops were found rich in nutritional, phytochemical, and therapeutic properties, showing excellent abilities to survive extreme environmental conditions. This review evaluates the recent state of underutilized legume crops, aquatic weeds, fungi, and insects intended as alternative protein sources, from ingredient production to their incorporation in food products, including their food formulations and the functional characteristics of alternative plant-based proteins and edible insect proteins as novel foods. Emphasis is also placed on safety issues due to the presence of anti-nutritional factors and allergenic proteins in insects and/or underutilized legumes. The functional and biological activities of protein hydrolysates from different protein sources are reviewed, along with bioactive peptides displaying antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and/or antimicrobial activity. Due to the healthy properties of these foods for the high abundance of bioactive peptides and phytochemicals, more consumers are expected to turn to vegetarianism or veganism in the future, and the increasing demand for such products will be a challenge for the future.

Hybrid Sausages Using Pork and Cricket Flour: Texture and Oxidative Storage Stability

This study aimed to study the functionalities of cricket flour (CF) and the effects of the addition of CF on the texture and oxidative stability of hybrid sausages made from lean pork and CF. Functional properties of CF, including protein solubility, water-holding capacity, and gelling capacity, were examined at different pHs, NaCl concentrations, and CF contents in laboratory tests. The protein solubility of CF was significantly affected by pH, being at its lowest at pH 5 (within the range 2-10), and the highest protein solubility toward NaCl concentrations was found at 1.0 M (at pH 6.8). A gel was formed when the CF content was ≥10%. A control sausage was made from lean pork, pork fat, salt, phosphate, and ice water. Three different hybrid sausages were formulated by adding CF at 1%, 2.5%, and 5.0% levels on top of the base (control) recipe. In comparison to control sausage, the textural properties of the CF sausages in terms of hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, resilience, and fracturability decreased significantly, which corresponded to the rheological results of the raw sausage batter when heated at a higher temperature range (~45-80 °C). The addition of CF to the base recipe accelerated both lipid and protein oxidation during 14 days of storage, as indicated by the changes in TBARS and carbonyls and the loss of free thiols and tryptophan fluorescence intensity. These results suggest that the addition of CF, even at low levels (≤5%), had negative effects on the texture and oxidative stability of the hybrid sausages.

Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) Powder Promotes a High Bioaccessible Protein Fraction and Low Glycaemic Index in Biscuits

Traditional biscuits are considered products with poor nutritional value because of their large share of rapidly digested starch, which results in an elevated glycaemic index. This paper explores the improvement of the nutritional value of biscuits by adding yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) powder. Four biscuit recipes containing 0%(R1), 10%(R2), 15%(R3), and 20%(R4) of yellow mealworm powder were prepared and subjected to sensorial analysis. The R3 biscuits were selected for further investigation, as they had the highest acceptability. Compared to the reference R1, the R3 biscuits showed an improved nutritional profile in terms of protein, fat, ash, minerals, fibres, essential amino acids, and unsaturated fatty acids, and lower amounts of carbohydrates and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. The in vitro protein digestibility in R3 improved 1.12-fold compared to R1. No significant difference was found between the digestibility of the lipids released from R1 and R3. A higher fraction of slowly digestible starch was present in R3 compared to R1. The starch digestibility and estimated glycaemic index were 72.96% and 79.56% in R3, which can be compared to 78.79% and 90.14%, respectively, in R1. Due to their enhanced nutritional profile, higher bioaccessible protein fraction, and lower glycaemic index, yellow mealworm powder biscuits can be considered a more nutritious alternative to traditional biscuits.

Hemp Waste as a Substrate for Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) and Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) Rearing

The proper treatment of cannabis agricultural wastes can reduce the environmental impact of its cultivation and generate valuable products. This study aimed to test the potential of cannabis agricultural wastes as a substrate for the rearing of black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) and yellow mealworms (MW). In the case of BSFL, replacing the fibre component (straw) in the substrate with the hemp waste can increase the nutritional value of the substrate and led to bigger larvae. The bigger larvae had lower P and Mg, and higher Fe and Ca. Crude protein also varied based on the size of larvae and/or the content of protein in the initial substrate, which was boosted by replacing straw with hemp material. No other cannabinoids than cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), and cannabidiol (CBD) were found in significant amounts in the larvae. In the case of MW, the larvae grew less on the hemp material in comparison to wheat bran. Replacing wheat bran with the hemp material led to smaller larvae with higher Ca, Fe, K, and crude protein content, but lower Mg and P values. No cannabinoids were detected in the MW fed with the hemp material.

Edible Insects an Alternative Nutritional Source of Bioactive Compounds: A Review

Edible insects have the potential to become one of the major future foods. In fact, they can be considered cheap, highly nutritious, and healthy food sources. International agencies, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), have focused their attention on the consumption of edible insects, in particular, regarding their nutritional value and possible biological, toxicological, and allergenic risks, wishing the development of analytical methods to verify the authenticity, quality, and safety of insect-based products. Edible insects are rich in proteins, fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals but also seem to contain large amounts of polyphenols able to have a key role in specific bioactivities. Therefore, this review is an overview of the potential of edible insects as a source of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, that can be a function of diet but also related to insect chemical defense. Currently, insect phenolic compounds have mostly been assayed for their antioxidant bioactivity; however, they also exert other activities, such as anti-inflammatory and anticancer activity, antityrosinase, antigenotoxic, and pancreatic lipase inhibitory activities.

Crickets (Acheta domesticus) as Wheat Bread Ingredient: Influence on Bread Quality and Safety Characteristics

The aim of this study was to assess respondents' opinions on the choice of edible insects as a food, and to evaluate the influence of cricket flour (ECF) (10, 20, 30%) on the quality of wheat bread (WB). Whereas ECF is an additional source of acrylamide precursors, in order to reduce acrylamide formation in WB, fermentation of ECF with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum-No.122 was applied. It was established that 70.7% of the respondents had never eaten insects and more than 30% would not choose them. However, ECF was suitable substrate for fermentation (lactobacilli count 8.24 log₁₀CFU/g, pH-4.26). In addition, fermentation reduced the total biogenic amines content in ECF (by 13.1%). The highest specific volume showed WB, prepared with fermented ECF (10, 20, 30%). All the tested WB showed similar overall acceptability (on average, 7.9 points). However, the highest intensity of emotion "happy" was induced by the WB, prepared with fermented ECF. Most of the WB with non-treated and fermented ECF showed higher acrylamide concentration (except WB with 10% of fermented ECF), in comparison with the control. Finally, fermentation is recommended for ECF inclusion in the main WB formula because fermentation improves not only quality but also reduces acrylamide concentration in WB.

Overcoming obstacles in insect utilization

Edible insects have long been part of human diets in some countries, and they are expected to become an important alternative food source because of their nutritional value and favorable environmental impact. However, insects’ consumption safety and consumer acceptance are still significant barriers to market positioning, mainly in Western regions. Therefore, several processing technologies have been applied to develop insect-based food products and derivatives to increase consumer safety, shelf-life, and sensorial properties, including appearance. The processing pathway for insects as food might then be focused on eliminating such concerns. However, even though there is enough information related to processing techniques for edible insects, the use of the treated material has been limited as a substitute rather than a main constituted nutritional component. Moreover, there is little information about novel technologies and uses of insect derivatives compared to the minimally processed insect, as in the case of flours. This review presents the food safety (biological and chemical hazards) and cultural aspects of difficulties of eating insects and the role of processing raw material, extraction of insect derivatives (lipids and proteins), and food prototypes development on safety and consumer acceptance.

Graphical abstract

Consumer Attitudes and Acceptability of Wheat Pancakes with the Addition of Edible Insects: Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), Buffalo Worm (Alphitobius diaperinus), and Cricket (Acheta domesticus)

The aim of this study was to determine the degree of acceptability of wheat pancakes with the addition of 10%, 20%, and 30% meal from three edible insect species (Alphitobius diaperinus, Tenebrio molitor, Acheta domesticus, respectively). Both consumer attitudes and the acceptability of the test samples were analysed. The study results show that the amount of additive had a statistically significant effect on all of the organoleptic evaluation's distinguishing features, while the type of additive did not have such a significant effect on the level of consumer acceptability. Both the type and amount of the additive only had a statistically significant effect on the structure of the pancakes. Of all the variants, the sample with the addition of 30% crickets (Pref-2.51) was given the lowest score. An increase in the insect meal content of the products resulted in decreased scores for all the parameters under assessment. The key element that influenced the overall preference was the flavour. Even though the respondents declared positive attitudes towards the idea of consuming pancakes with the addition of insects and entomophagy in general, they were still reluctant to include insects in their diets.

Effect of Mealworm Powder Substitution on the Properties of High-Gluten Wheat Dough and Bread Based on Different Baking Methods

Mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) are protein-rich edible insects that have been regarded as novel food ingredients. In this study, high-gluten wheat flour was formulated with dried mealworm powder at various levels (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) to study its influence on the pasting, farinograph, and extensograph properties and microstructure of the dough. A subsequent decrease in the pasting parameters was observed due to starch dilution. The water absorption, dough development time, and dough stability time decreased gradually from 71.9% to 68.67%, 13.6 min to 10.43 min, and 14.1 min to 5.33 min, respectively, with the increase in the substitution of mealworm powder from 0% to 20%. The farinograph characteristics corresponded to a weak gluten network formed through the dilution of gluten by the replacement of wheat flour with a non-gluten ingredient. The stretch ratio of the high-gluten dough increased gradually from 4.37 (M0) to 6.33 (M15). The increased stretching resistance and extensibility of the dough with 5% and 10% mealworm powder indicated that mealworm powder can act as a plasticizer in the gluten network, which might contribute to the decreased strength and increased elasticity and flexibility of the dough network. The bread made with three different baking methods showed similar increases in specific volume and decreased hardness up to the 10% substitution level, owing to the increased elasticity and flexibility of the dough. The GB/T 35869-2018 Rapid-baking method, GB/T 14611-2008 Straight dough method, and automatic bread maker method exhibited the highest specific volumes of 3.70 mL/g, 3.79 mL/g, and 4.14 mL/g when the wheat flour was substituted with 10% mealworm powder. However, 15% and 20% mealworm powder substitution markedly reduced the bread quality owing to the dilution effect and mealworm powder phase separation. These results provide a perspective on the relationship between the rheological properties of mealworm powder-substituted high-gluten dough and application suggestions for insect food development in the food industry.

Chemical Composition, Nutritional Value, and Acceptance of Nut Bars with the Addition of Edible Insect Powder

Six types of nut-based bars with the addition of edible insect flour were obtained. Flours made from three different insects (Tenebrio molitor L., Acheta domesticus L., Alphitobius diaperinus P.) were used at two different additive levels (15% and 30%) in relation to the weight of the nuts. The addition of insect flour significantly increased protein content and the insoluble fraction of dietary fiber. The largest amount of these compounds was found in bars with 30% cricket flour, 15.51 g/100 g and 6.04 g/100 g, respectively, in comparison to standard bars, 10.78 g/100 g and 3.14 g/100 g, respectively. The greatest consumer acceptance was found in relation to bars with buffalo worm flour. The overall acceptance of these bars was 6.26-6.28 points compared to 6.48 for standard bars. Bars and raw materials were characterized by the high biological value of the protein. Cis linoleic acid dominated among unsaturated fatty acids. The percentage of this compound was in the range of 69.56%, for bars with a 30% addition of buffalo worm flour, to 73.88%, for bars with 15% cricket flour. Instrumental analysis of taste and smell compounds showed the presence of compounds such as 3-methylbutanoic acid, hexanal, and 2,3-pentanedione.

The contribution of edible cricket flour to quality parameters and sensory characteristics of wheat bread

This study evaluated the influence of edible cricket flour (ECF) on the quality parameters and sensory characteristics of wheat bread (WB), including the formation of volatile compounds (VC) and their relationship with emotions (EM) induced for consumers. ECF reduced dough pH, redness, and yellowness. At 5%, ECF increased the porosity of WB (by 7.87%). The quantity of ECF significantly affected WB's specific volume (p = .030), porosity (p = .0001), shape coefficient (p = .0001), and mass loss (p = .023). All WB with ECF had a more intense color and additive odor. Bread samples with 10% and 15% ECF had more intense overall, additive, acidity, and bitterness flavors. However, all WB had similar overall acceptability (OA) and no correlations were found between OA and VC. The EM "happy" and "sad" were expressed more intensely for WB with 15% ECF, and significant correlations were established between the EM "happy" and separate VC. The main VC in WB were ethanol; 1-butanol and 3-methyl; 1-hexanol; estragole; and hexanoic acid. Finally, 5% ECF could be incorporated into the main WB formula without having a negative impact on bread quality. Also, ECF influences VC formation, and separate VC could be related to emotions induced for consumers.

Characterization of Tenebrio molitor Larvae Protein Preparations Obtained by Different Extraction Approaches

Edible insects have recently attracted research attention due to their nutritional value and low environmental footprint. Tenebrio molitor larva was the first insect species to be classified by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) as safe for human consumption. However, it is thought that the incorporation of edible insect as an ingredient in a food product would be more appealing to consumers than being visible. The aim of the present study was to determine the physicochemical properties of the larvae meal and protein concentrates. Different methods to extract and recover proteins from defatted (DF) Tenebrio molitor larvae were applied; i.e., alkaline extraction (DF-ASP); isoelectric precipitation after alkaline extraction (DF-AIP); and NaCl treatment (DF-SSP), and the obtained protein fractions were characterized. The DF-ASP exhibited the highest protein extraction/recovery efficiency (>60%), while it was the most effective in decreasing the interfacial tension at the oil/water (o/w) interface. The DF-AIP had the highest protein content (75.1%) and absolute values of ζ-potential and the best ability to retain water (10.54 g/g) and stabilize emulsions at pH 3.0. The DF-SSP protein preparation had the highest oil binding capacity (8.62%) and solubility (~88%) at acidic pHs and the highest emulsifying activity (~86 m2/g). Electrophoresis of the protein preparations revealed proteins with different molecular weights, while the protein secondary structure was dominated by β-structures and α-helix. Protein concentrates with different properties were able to be recovered from Tenebrio molitor larvae, that could affect their interactions with other food ingredients and their behavior during processing or storage. These findings would be valuable guidance for the technological exploitation of larvae protein preparations in the development of food formulations.

Formulation of Protein-Rich Chocolate Chip Cookies Using Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Powder

In the Western world, the successful introduction of insect consumption may need awareness of insect ingredient benefits, and consumers' anticipation of insect-based foods with sensory quality is crucial. The objective of this study was to develop protein-rich nutritional chocolate chip cookies (CCC) from cricket powder (CP) and analyze their physicochemical, liking, emotions, purchase intent, and sensory properties. The CP additions levels were 0%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10%. Chemical composition, physicochemical, and functional properties were analyzed using individual and mixed CP and wheat flour (WF). The proximate composition of CP mainly consisted of ash (3.9%), fat (13.4%), and protein (60.7%). In vitro protein digestibility of CP was 85.7%, whereas the essential amino acid score was 0.82. The CP inclusion significantly impacted the WF functional and rheological properties in all given incorporation levels in flour blends and doughs. The incorporation of CP produced darker and softer CCC, resulting from the effect of the CP protein. Adding 5% of CP did not impact the sensory attributes. Purchase intent and liking improved by using 5% of CP after panelists had revealed the beneficial information regarding CP. Concerning emotion terms, "happy" and "satisfied" significantly decreased while the negative emotion term "disgusted" increased among the highest CP substitute levels (7.5% and 10%) after beneficial information. Overall liking, flavor linking, education, consumption intent, gender, age, and positive emotion term "happy" were significantly assertive predictors affecting purchase intent.

Will It Cricket? Product Development and Evaluation of Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Powder Replacement in Sausage, Pasta, and Brownies

Insect powders used in food products may lower the overall quality when compared to conventional counterparts. This preliminary study was used to develop and evaluate insect-based food products and to utilize them in a future consumer test. Pork sausage, dried pasta, and chocolate brownie formulations were developed to either contain NO cricket powder (Control) or have cricket powder (CP). The products were evaluated for proximate composition and product-dependent parameters. The protein content increased in the CP pasta and brownies (p < 0.05) while no changes were found in the sausage (p > 0.05). Fat content increased in both the CP pasta and brownies while it decreased in the CP sausage (p < 0.05). The CP sausage had a higher carbohydrate content than the Control (p < 0.05). Overall, this may be attributed to cricket powder being high in protein and fat while also containing dietary fiber. Cricket powder replacement may lead to noticeable color differences by increasing green and blue coloring in sausage and pasta (p < 0.05). Changes in textural properties (p < 0.05) may be attributed to cricket powder affecting protein solubility and emulsion stability in sausage while gluten formation may be interfered with in the brownies. Overall, cricket powder replacement had improved nutritional content with minor changes in quality parameters.

Adding Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) Powder to Wheat Bread: Effects on Physicochemical, Sensory and Microbiological Qualities of the End-Product

Entomophagy, that is, the consumption of insects, is gaining more and more popularity. The research carried out so far on the use of edible insects in the food industry has shown that they are a valuable source of protein, and do not significantly affect the functional and sensory properties of food. Edible insects also contribute to sustainable, environment friendly food production. Taking the above into account, the influence of adding insect powder on the physicochemical properties, sensory characteristics, and microbiological qualities of wheat bread was evaluated. This study aimed to partially replace wheat flour (5, 10, and 15%) in bread with mealworm powder (T. molitor) to produce protein-fortified bread. Bread containing mealworm powder showed similar density and water activity compared to the control wheat bread. The addition of mealworm powder did not negatively affect the properties of bread. The total color difference increased significantly (p < 0.05) with the insect flour share in bread formulation and ranged between 2.27 for M5, 4.00 for M10, and 4.50 for M15. The protein content in bread fortified with 5−15% mealworm powder increased by 15−59% compared to the control bread, whereas fat content increased by 35% to 113%. Results of sensory evaluation revealed that modification of the recipe, depending on the mealworm powder addition level, significantly (p < 0.05) affected bread color, odor, flavor, and overall sensory quality. The research showed that the optimal enrichment level is using 5% mealworm flour in the bread recipe. Moreover, the obtained variants of bread were characterized by good microbiological quality after baking. In bread M10, no yeasts and molds were found during a period of 2 days of storage. The number of yeasts and molds in the other bread variants was relatively low. To conclude, the results confirmed the usefulness of insect powder in making protein-fortified bread of good quality comparable to traditional wheat bread.

Recent Insight on Edible Insect Protein: Extraction, Functional Properties, Allergenicity, Bioactivity, and Applications

Due to the recent increase in the human population and the associated shortage of protein resources, it is necessary to find new, sustainable, and natural protein resources from invertebrates (such as insects) and underutilized plants. In most cases, compared to plants (e.g., grains and legumes) and animals (e.g., fish, beef, chicken, lamb, and pork), insect proteins are high in quality in terms of their nutritional value, total protein content, and essential amino acid composition. This review evaluates the recent state of insects as an alternative protein source from production to application; more specifically, it introduces in detail the latest advances in the protein extraction process. As an alternative source of protein in food formulations, the functional characteristics of edible insect protein are comprehensively presented, and the risk of allergy associated with insect protein is also discussed. The biological activity of protein hydrolyzates from different species of insects (Bombyx mori, Hermetia illucens, Acheta domesticus, Tenebrio molitor) are also reviewed, and the hydrolysates (bioactive peptides) are found to have either antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial activity. Finally, the use of edible insect protein in various food applications is presented.

Effect of Partial Substitution of Flour with Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) Powder on Dough and Biscuit Properties

Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) is a type of edible insect rich in protein that has become popular as a protein-alternative ingredient in flour-based products to improve the nutritional properties of baking products. The mealworm powder substitution affected the pasting, farinograph, extensograph properties of wheat flour and the texture, nutritional, and sensory properties of the resulting soda biscuit. The pasting parameters (peak viscosity, trough viscosity, breakdown viscosity, final viscosity, and setback viscosity) and the water absorption decreased with the increased mealworm powder substitution level, which was ascribed to the dilution effect of mealworm powder. The farinograph parameters remained similar up to 15% substitution level. The extensograph results showed that mealworm powder substitution decreased the elastic properties of wheat dough as indicated by the consistently decreased extensibility, stretching energy, and stretching resistance, resulting in a significantly decreased baking expansion ratio of the soda biscuit. The protein, lipid, and dietary fiber content of the biscuits increased accordingly with the increased mealworm powder substitution level. The protein content of the soda biscuit was gradually increased from 9.13/100 g for the control (M0) to 16.0/100 g for that supplemented with 20% mealworm powder (M20), accompanied with the significantly increased essential amino acid content. Meanwhile, the fat and dietary fiber content of M20 exhibited 20.5 and 21.7% increase compared to those of M0. The score of the sensory attributes showed no significant difference up to 15% substitution level. The results demonstrated the 15% mealworm powder substitution level would not significantly affect the farinograph property, microstructure of wheat dough, and sensory acceptability.

Whole Wheat Bread Enriched with Cricket Powder as an Alternative Protein

The current market trends in modern sedentary lifestyles drive the development of new functional products able to fulfill consumers’ demand for a healthy diet. Whole wheat bread contains more protein and fiber than white bread; however, it could be improved in terms of protein content and quality. Cricket powder, which contains high protein (55.11, wt%), could be used as an alternative source to tackle those deficiencies in such bread. Hence, the study aimed to apply cricket powder in the whole wheat bread formula to enrich protein content, indispensable amino acids and determine their physico-chemical properties, consumers’ acceptance, and shelf-life storage. The results showed that all enriched bread presented high protein (18.97−25.94, wt%), fat (10.91−15.07, wt%), and ash (2.09−2.33, wt%) with the increment of the cricket powder than those of the control bread. Enriched breads’ crust colors were not significantly different (p > 0.05), while crumb colors were darker (L* = 55.64−64.48) compared to the control (L* = 69.98). Enriched bread had a hard texture and required a lot of chewing force compared to the control. Furthermore, all samples yielded a shelf-life of 5 days when monitoring the mold growth. From the results, the bread enriched with 20% cricket powder yielded the best consumers’ acceptance score of 77%. It was predominantly high in indispensable amino acids such as leucine, phenylalanine, lysine, and arginine. Therefore, cricket powder could be a novel alternative protein source and successfully utilized in whole wheat bread to enhance its protein content and indispensable amino acids with consumers’ acceptance responding to the current market trend.