The effect of bromfenvinphos, its impurities and chlorfenvinphos on acetylcholinesterase activity

Visible Light-Driven Advanced Oxidation Processes to Remove Emerging Contaminants from Water and Wastewater: a Review

The scientific data review shows that advanced oxidation processes based on the hydroxyl or sulfate radicals are of great interest among the currently conventional water and wastewater treatment methods. Different advanced treatment processes such as photocatalysis, Fenton's reagent, ozonation, and persulfate-based processes were investigated to degrade contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) such as pesticides, personal care products, pharmaceuticals, disinfectants, dyes, and estrogenic substances. This article presents a general overview of visible light-driven advanced oxidation processes for the removal of chlorfenvinphos (organophosphorus insecticide), methylene blue (azo dye), and diclofenac (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug). The following visible light-driven treatment methods were reviewed: photocatalysis, sulfate radical oxidation, and photoelectrocatalysis. Visible light, among other sources of energy, is a renewable energy source and an excellent substitute for ultraviolet radiation used in advanced oxidation processes. It creates a high application potential for solar-assisted advanced oxidation processes in water and wastewater technology. Despite numerous publications of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), more extensive research is needed to investigate the mechanisms of contaminant degradation in the presence of visible light. Therefore, this paper provides an important source of information on the degradation mechanism of emerging contaminants. An important aspect in the work is the analysis of process parameters affecting the degradation process. The initial concentration of CECs, pH, reaction time, and catalyst dosage are discussed and analyzed. Based on a comprehensive survey of previous studies, opportunities for applications of AOPs are presented, highlighting the need for further efforts to address dominant barriers to knowledge acquisition.

The effect of human GRIN1 gene 5' functional region on gene expression regulation in vitro

INTRODUCTION

Abnormal expression of ionotropic glutamate receptor NMDA type subunit 1, the key subunit of the NMDA receptor, may be related to many neuropsychiatric disorders. In this study, we explored the functional sequence of the 5' regulatory region of the human GRIN1 gene and discussed the transcription factors that may regulate gene expression.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twelve recombinant pGL3 vectors with gradually truncated fragment lengths were constructed, transfected into HEK-293, U87, and SK-N-SH cell lines, and analyzed through the luciferase reporter gene assay. JASPAR database is used to predict transcription factors.

RESULTS

In SK-N-SH and U87 cell lines, regions from -337 to -159 bp, -704 to -556 bp inhibited gene expression, while -556 to -337 bp upregulated gene expression. In HEK-293 and U87 cell lines, the expression of fragment -1703 to + 188 bp was significantly increased compared to adjacent fragments -1539 to + 188 bp and -1843 to + 188 bp. The protein expressions of fragments -2162 to + 188 bp and -2025 to + 188 bp, -1539 to + 188 bp and -1215 to + 188 bp, -1215 to + 188 bp and -1066 to + 188 bp were significantly different in HEK-293 and SK-N-SH cells. According to the predictions of the JASPAR database, the transcription factors REST, EGR1, and CREB1/HIC2 may bind the DNA sequences of GRIN1 gene from the -337 to -159, -556 to -337, and -704 to -556, respectively. In addition, zinc finger transcription factors may regulate the expression of other differentially expressed fragments.

CONCLUSIONS

Abnormal transcription regulation in the proximal promoter region of GRIN1 (-704 to + 188 bp) may be involved in the course of neuropsychiatric diseases.

Complex study of glyphosate and metabolites influence on enzymatic activity and microorganisms association in soil enriched with Pseudomonas fluorescens and sewage sludge

This is the first large scale study of fate of the glyphosate (GLP) and its metabolites, (AMPA, N-acetyl glyphosate, N-acetyl AMPA, sarcosine and glycine) monitored by LC/MS/MS. The laboratory trials of behavior of GLP in two types of agricultural soil were performed. Soil (S), soil enriched with sewage sludge (S + SL), soil with Pseudomonas fluorescens (S + P) and soil enriched with sewage sludge and P. fluorescens (S + SL + P) was treated with Roundup 360 SL under controlled conditions. The presence of metabolites was depended on the soil type and enrichment with sludge or bacteria. The GLP and its soil metabolites caused increase of microorganisms association in comparison to control. We assumed that P. fluorescens and sewage sludge influence on time of GLP dissipation. Moreover, GLP degradation in presence of P. fluorescens and sewage sludge is carried out in different metabolic pathways compared to control (S + GLP). Furthermore, presence of particular GLP metabolites is related to different metabolic pathways and is connected with P. fluorescens and sewage sludge occurrence in soil. Additionally, P. fluorescens and sewage sludge stimulate enzymatic activity of soils.

The effect of two bromfenvinphos impurities: BDCEE and β-ketophosphonate on oxidative stress induction, acetylcholinesterase activity, and viability of human red blood cells

Numerous research works have shown that synthesis of pesticides leads to the formation of impurities that may substantially enhance pesticide toxicity. In this study, the effect of manufacturing impurities of pesticide bromfenvinphos (BFVF) such as 1-bromo-2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2-ethoxy ethene (BDCEE) and diethyl [2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2-oxo-ethyl] phosphonate (β-ketophosphonate) on human erythrocytes, being significantly exposed to xenobiotics has been studied. The cells were treated with the compounds studied in the concentrations ranging from 0.1 μM to 250 μM for 4 h. In order to assess the effect of BDCEE and β-ketophosphonate on red blood cells hemolytic changes, changes in cell size (FSC parameter) and oxidation of hemoglobin were studied. Moreover, alterations in reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, reduced glutathione (GSH) level and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity were determined. BDCEE induced an increase in ROS level and caused strong oxidation of hemoglobin as well as a slight change in erythrocytes size and hemolysis, while it did not change GSH level and AChE activity. β-ketophosphonate has not been shown to affect most parameters studied, but it strongly reduced AChE activity. Because changes in the parameters examined were noted at low concentrations of BFVF impurities (5-250 µM), those substances should not negatively affect on red blood cells of humans environmentally exposed to this pesticide.

The in vitro comparative study of the effect of BPA, BPS, BPF and BPAF on human erythrocyte membrane; perturbations in membrane fluidity, alterations in conformational state and damage to proteins, changes in ATP level and Na+/K+ ATPase and AChE activities

Bisphenols are massively used in the industry, and thus the exposure of biota including humans to these substances has been noted. In this study we have assessed the effect of BPA and its selected analogs, i.e. BPS, BPF and BPAF on membrane of human red blood cells, which is the first barrier that must be overcome by xenobiotics penetrating the cell, and is commonly utilized as a model in the investigation of the effect of different xenobiotics on various cell types. Red blood cells were incubated with BPA and its analogs in the concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 250 μg/ml for 4 h and 24 h. We have noted that the compounds studied altered membrane fluidity at its hydrophobic region, increased internal viscosity and osmotic fragility of the erythrocytes and altered conformational state of membrane proteins. Moreover, bisphenols examined increased thiol groups level, caused oxidative damage to membrane proteins, decreased ATP level, depleted the activity of Na+/K + ATPase and changed the activity of AChE in human red blood cells. It has been shown that the strongest changes were noted in cells treated with BPAF, while BPS caused the weakest (or none) alterations in the parameters studied.

The Impact of Glyphosate, Its Metabolites and Impurities on Viability, ATP Level and Morphological changes in Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells

The toxicity of herbicides to animals and human is an issue of worldwide concern. The present study has been undertaken to assess toxic effect of widely used pesticide-glyphosate, its metabolites: aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) and methylphosphonic acid and its impurities: N-(phosphonomethyl)iminodiacetic acid (PMIDA), N-methylglyphosate, hydroxymethylphosphonic acid and bis-(phosphonomethyl)amine on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). We have evaluated the effect of those compounds on viability, ATP level, size (FSC-A parameter) and granulation (SSC-A parameter) of the cells studied. Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells were exposed to different concentrations of glyphosate, its metabolites and impurities (0.01-10 mM) for 4 and 24 h. It was found that investigated compounds caused statistically significant decrease in viability and ATP level of PBMCs. The strongest changes in cell viability and ATP level were observed after 24 h incubation of PBMCs with bis-(phosphonomethyl)amine, and particularly PMIDA. Moreover, all studied compounds changed cell granularity, while PMIDA and bis-(phosphonomethyl)amine altered PBMCs size. It may be concluded that bis-(phosphonomethyl)amine, and PMIDA caused a slightly stronger damage to PBMCs than did glyphosate. Changes in the parameters studied in PBMCs were observed only at high concentrations of the compounds examined, which clearly shows that they may occur in this cell type only as a result of acute poisoning of human organism with these substances.

Bromfenvinphos induced suicidal death of human erythrocytes

The organophosphorus pesticide bromfenvinphos ((E,Z)-O,O-diethyl-O-[1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2-bromovinyl] phosphate) has been shown to decrease hematocrit and hemoglobin levels in blood presumably by triggering oxidative stress of erythrocytes. Oxidative stress is known to activate erythrocytic Ca(2+) permeable unselective cation channels leading to Ca(2+) entry and increase of cytosolic Ca(2+) activity ([Ca(2+)]i), which in turn triggers eryptosis, the suicidal death characterized by cell shrinkage and cell membrane scrambling with phosphatidylserine translocation to the erythrocyte surface. The present study explored, whether and how bromfenvinphos induces eryptosis. To this end, phosphatidylserine exposure at the cell surface was estimated from annexin-V-binding, cell volume from forward scatter, hemolysis from hemoglobin release, [Ca(2+)]i from Fluo3-fluorescence, and ROS formation from DCFDA dependent fluorescence. As a result, a 48hour exposure of human erythrocytes to bromfenvinphos (≥100μM) significantly increased the percentage of annexin-V-binding cells, significantly decreased forward scatter, significantly increased Fluo3-fluorescence, and significantly increased DCFDA fluorescence. The effect of bromfenvinphos on annexin-V-binding and forward scatter was significantly blunted, but not abolished by removal of extracellular Ca(2+). In conclusion, bromfenvinphos triggers cell shrinkage and phospholipid scrambling of the erythrocyte cell membrane, an effect in part due to stimulation of ROS formation and Ca(2+) entry.

Oxidative stress in human erythrocytes treated with bromfenvinphos and its impurities

Bromfenvinphos (BFVF) is an organophosphorus (OP) pesticide which was widely used in agriculture and veterinary practice. During synthesis of this insecticide five main impurities are formed: dihydro-bromfenvinphos, dibromo-bromfenvinphos, 2,4-dichlorophenacyl bromide, 2,4-dichlorophenacylidene bromide and 2,4-dichlorophenacylidyne bromide, which can be present in technical grade bromfenvinphos in amounts from 0.1 to 4%. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of bromfenvinphos and its manufacturing impurities on parameters of oxidative stress, the activity of antioxidative enzymes and the level of reduced glutathione. Human erythrocytes were incubated with bromfenvinphos and its impurities in the concentrations range from 0.5 to 500 µM for 1 h. This study indicated that 2,4-dichlorophenacyl derivatives more strongly oxidized analyzed parameters in human erythrocytes than bromfenvinphos. Investigated compounds caused an increase in lipid peroxidation and oxidation of fluorescent probe DCFH2 - the strongest pro-oxidative changes were provoked by 2,4-dichlorophenacyl bromide. None of the compounds studied in the concentrations from 0.5 to 500 µM changed the activity of SOD and only 2,4-dichlorophenacyl decreased activity of CAT. The level of GSH was only altered by 2,4-dichlorophenacyl derivatives. It was observed that increasing number of bromine atoms in the side chain of those derivatives was associated with decreased GSH level.

The effect of glyphosate, its metabolites and impurities on erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase activity

Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] is used all over the world to protect agricultural and horticultural crops. According to initial reports, glyphosate has been considered to be safe for humans and animals; nevertheless, recent investigations had proven its toxicity. Extensive use of glyphosate and the conviction of its low toxicity leads to a situation in which it is used in excessive amounts in agriculture. That is why, we have investigated the effect of the most commonly used pesticide: glyphosate, its metabolites and impurities on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity (in vitro) in human erythrocytes, which is biochemically similar to acetylcholinesterase present in neural synapses. The analysis of noxious effects of metabolites and impurities of pesticides seems to be very important to evaluate toxicological risk that is associated with the effect of pesticide formulations (requirement of the EU regulations 1107/200/EC). The erythrocytes were incubated with xenobiotics at concentrations range from 0.01 to 5 mM for 1 and 4 h. Statistically significant decrease in AChE activity (about 20%) was observed only at high concentrations of the compounds (0.25-5 mM), which enter body only as a result of acute poisoning. There were no statistically significant differences in the effect of the investigated compounds, while the changes caused by them were similar after 1 and 4 h incubation. The investigated metabolites and impurities did not cause stronger changes in AChE activity than glyphosate itself. It may be concluded that the compounds studied (used in the concentrations that are usually determined in the environment) do not disturb function of human erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase.

The effect of metabolites and impurities of glyphosate on human erythrocytes (in vitro)

The toxicity of herbicides to animals and human is an issue of worldwide concern. The present study was undertaken to evaluate toxic potential of widely used pesticide - glyphosate, its metabolites: aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA); methylphosphonic acid and its impurities: N-(phosphonomethyl)iminodiacetic acid (PMIDA), N-methylglyphosate, hydroxymethylphosphonic acid and bis-(phosphonomethyl)amine. We evaluated the effect of those compounds on hemolysis, hemoglobin oxidation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and changes in morphology of human erythrocytes. The erythrocytes were exposed to different concentrations of glyphosate and its metabolites and impurities (0.01-5mM) for 1, 4 and 24h. Glyphosate, its metabolites and impurities induced a little hemolysis and hemoglobin oxidation. All changes were very low, even after 24h incubation. Most of the investigated compounds induced reactive oxygen species formation from 0.25mM, except the N-methylglyphosate which caused an increase in ROS formation from 0.5mM. Moreover, the investigated xenobiotics did not change the size and shape (except bis-(phosphonomethyl)amine) of the human erythrocytes. Changes in human erythrocytes were observed only when high concentrations of the compounds were applied. Some investigated metabolites and impurities caused a slight stronger damage to human erythrocytes than a glyphosate. The results clearly show that the changes induced in the erythrocytes can occur only as a result of poisoning with these compounds.