Assessment of biochemical and immunomodulatory activity of sulphated polysaccharides from Ulva intestinalis

Immunomodulatory Effect of Cordyceps militaris Polysaccharide on RAW 264.7 Macrophages by Regulating MAPK Signaling Pathways

Polysaccharide is one of the principal bioactive components found in medicinal mushrooms and has been proven to enhance host immunity. However, the possible mechanism of immunomodulatory activity of Cordyceps militaris polysaccharide is not fully understood. Hot water extraction and alcohol precipitation, DEAE-Sephadex A-25 chromatography, and Sephadex G-100 chromatography were used to isolate polysaccharide from C. militaris. A high-molecular-weight polysaccharide isolated from C. militaris was designated as HCMP, which had an Mw of 6.18 × 105 Da and was composed of arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose, and xylose in a mole ratio of 2.00:8.01:72.54:15.98:1.02. The polysaccharide content of HCMP was 91.2% ± 0.16. The test in vitro showed that HCMP activated mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cells by enhancing phagocytosis and NO production, and by regulating mRNA expressions of inflammation-related molecules in RAW 264.7 cells. Western blotting revealed that HCMP induced the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). Moreover, using inhibitors of MAPKs decreased the mRNA levels of inflammation-related molecules induced by HCMP. These data evidenced that the immunomodulatory effect of HCMP on RAW 264.7 macrophages was mediated via the MAPK signaling pathway. These findings suggested that HCMP could be developed as a potent immunomodulatory agent for use in functional foods and dietary supplements.

Potentials of Ulva spp.-derived sulfated polysaccharides as gelling agents with promising therapeutic effects

Ulvan, a sulfated polysaccharide extracted from Ulva spp., has garnered significant attention in the food and pharmaceutical industries due to its potential health benefits. These include immunomodulation, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperlipidemic, and anti-cancer effects. Nonetheless, practical applications in these fields remain limited due to an incomplete understanding of its gelation mechanisms. Additionally, the underlying mechanisms of its gelation have not been completely understood and thoroughly reviewed. The primary objective is to provide current insights into ulvan's gelling mechanisms and potential health impacts. This review also delves into the existing applications of ulvan polysaccharides. By unraveling these aspects, the information provided in this work is expected to deepen our understanding of ulvan's gelation mechanisms and its prospective role in enhancing health, holding promise for advancements in the fields of food science and disease prevention. This work's theoretical insights contribute significantly to a deeper understanding of these aspects, which holds paramount importance in unleashing the full potential of ulvan and elevating its scientific significance.

Chemically modified seaweed polysaccharides: Improved functional and biological properties and prospective in food applications

Seaweed polysaccharides are natural biomacromolecules with unique physicochemical properties (e.g., good gelling, emulsifying, and film-forming properties) and diverse biological activities (e.g., anticoagulant, antioxidant, immunoregulatory, and antitumor effects). Furthermore, they are nontoxic, biocompatible and biodegradable, and abundant in resources. Therefore, they have been widely utilized in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. However, their properties and bioactivities sometimes are not satisfactory for some purposes. Modification of polysaccharides can impart the amphiphilicity and new functions to the biopolymers and change the structure and conformation, thus effectively improving their functional properties and biological activities so as to meet the requirement for targeted applications. This review outlined the modification methods of representative red algae polysaccharides (carrageenan and agar), brown algae polysaccharides (fucoidan, alginate, and laminaran), and green algae polysaccharides (ulvan) that have potential food applications, including etherification, esterification, degradation, sulfation, phosphorylation, selenylation, and so on. The improved functional properties and bioactivities of the modified seaweed polysaccharides and their potential food applications are also summarized.

The Ethyl Acetate Extract of Caulerpa microphysa Promotes Collagen Homeostasis and Inhibits Inflammation in the Skin

Inflammation and collagen-degrading enzymes' overexpression promote collagen decomposition, which affects the structural integrity of the extracellular matrix. The polysaccharide and peptide extracts of the green alga Caulerpa microphysa (C. microphysa) have been proven to have anti-inflammatory, wound healing, and antioxidant effects in vivo and in vitro. However, the biological properties of the non-water-soluble components of C. microphysa are still unknown. In the present study, we demonstrated the higher effective anti-inflammatory functions of C. microphysa ethyl acetate (EA) extract than water extract up to 16-30% in LPS-induced HaCaT cells, including reducing the production of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Furthermore, the excellent collagen homeostasis effects from C. microphysa were proven by suppressing the matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) secretion, enhancing type 1 procollagen and collagen expressions dose-dependently in WS1 cells. Moreover, using UHPLC-QTOF-MS analysis, four terpenoids, siphonaxanthin, caulerpenyne, caulerpal A, and caulerpal B, were identified and may be involved in the superior collagen homeostasis and anti-inflammatory effects of the C. microphysa EA extract.

Anti-inflammatory potential of ulvan

Green seaweeds are a widespread group of marine macroalgae that could be regarded as biorenewable source of valuable compounds, in particular sulfated polysaccharides like ulvans with interesting biological properties. Among them, anti-inflammatory activity represents an interesting target, since ulvans could potentially avoid side effects of conventional therapies. However, a great variability in ulvan content, composition, structure and properties occurs depending on seaweed specie and growth and processing conditions. All these aspects should be carefully considered in order to have reproducible and well characterized products. This review presents some concise ideas on ulvan composition and general concepts on inflammation mechanisms. Then, the main focus is on the importance of adequate selection of extraction, depolymerization and purification technologies followed by an updated survey on anti-inflammatory properties of ulvans through modulation of different signaling pathways. The potential application in a number of diseases, with special emphasis on inflammaging, gut microbiota dysbiosis, wound repair, and metabolic diseases is also discussed. This multidisciplinary overview tries to present the potential of ulvans considering not only mechanistic, but also processing and applications aspects, trusting that it can aid in the development and application of this widely available and renewable resource as an efficient and versatile anti-inflammatory agent.

Structural Characterization and Cytotoxic Activity Evaluation of Ulvan Polysaccharides Extracted from the Green Algae Ulva papenfussii

Ulvan, a sulfated heteropolysaccharide with structural and functional properties of interest for various uses, was extracted from the green seaweed Ulva papenfussii. U. papenfussii is an unexplored Ulva species found in the South China Sea along the central coast of Vietnam. Based on dry weight, the ulvan yield was ~15% (w/w) and the ulvan had a sulfate content of 13.4 wt%. The compositional constitution encompassed L-Rhamnose (Rhap), D-Xylose (Xylp), D-Glucuronic acid (GlcAp), L-Iduronic acid (IdoAp), D-Galactose (Galp), and D-Glucose (Glcp) with a molar ratio of 1:0.19:0.35:0.52:0.05:0.11, respectively. The structure of ulvan was determined using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR) methods. The results showed that the extracted ulvan comprised a mixture of two different structural forms, namely ("A3s") with the repeating disaccharide [→4)-β-D-GlcAp-(1→4)-α-L-Rhap 3S-(1→]n, and ("B3s") with the repeating disaccharide [→4)-α-L-IdoAp-(1→4)-α-L-Rhap 3S(1→]n. The relative abundance of A3s, and B3s was 1:1.5, respectively. The potential anticarcinogenic attributes of ulvan were evaluated against a trilogy of human cancer cell lineages. Concomitantly, Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) modeling was also conducted to predict potential adverse reactions stemming from pharmacological interactions. The ulvan showed significant antitumor growth activity against hepatocellular carcinoma (IC50 ≈ 90 µg/mL), human breast cancer cells (IC50 ≈ 85 µg/mL), and cervical cancer cells (IC50 ≈ 67 µg/mL). The QSAR models demonstrated acceptable predictive power, and seven toxicity indications confirmed the safety of ulvan, warranting its candidacy for further in vivo testing and applications as a biologically active pharmaceutical source for human disease treatment.

Rehashing Our Insight of Seaweeds as a Potential Source of Foods, Nutraceuticals, and Pharmaceuticals

In a few Southeast Asian nations, seaweeds have been a staple of the cuisine since prehistoric times. Seaweeds are currently becoming more and more popular around the world due to their superior nutritional value and medicinal properties. This is because of rising seaweed production on a global scale and substantial research on their composition and bioactivities over the past 20 years. By reviewing several articles in the literature, this review aimed to provide comprehensive information about the primary and secondary metabolites and various classes of bioactive compounds, such as polysaccharides, polyphenols, proteins, and essential fatty acids, along with their bioactivities, in a single article. This review also highlights the potential of seaweeds in the development of nutraceuticals, with a particular focus on their ability to enhance human health and overall well-being. In addition, we discuss the challenges and potential opportunities associated with the advancement of pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals derived from seaweeds, as well as their incorporation into different industrial sectors. Furthermore, we find that many bioactive constituents found in seaweeds have demonstrated potential in terms of different therapeutic attributes, including antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and other properties. In conclusion, seaweed-based bioactive compounds have a huge potential to play an important role in the food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical sectors. However, future research should pay more attention to developing efficient techniques for the extraction and purification of compounds as well as their toxicity analysis, clinical efficacy, mode of action, and interactions with regular diets.

Polysaccharides-Naturally Occurring Immune Modulators

The prevention of disease and infection requires immune systems that operate effectively. This is accomplished by the elimination of infections and abnormal cells. Immune or biological therapy treats disease by either stimulating or inhibiting the immune system, dependent upon the circumstances. In plants, animals, and microbes, polysaccharides are abundant biomacromolecules. Due to the intricacy of their structure, polysaccharides may interact with and impact the immune response; hence, they play a crucial role in the treatment of several human illnesses. There is an urgent need for the identification of natural biomolecules that may prevent infection and treat chronic disease. This article addresses some of the naturally occurring polysaccharides of known therapeutic potential that have already been identified. This article also discusses extraction methods and immunological modulatory capabilities.

Immunomodulatory, Antioxidant, Anticancer, and Pharmacokinetic Activity of Ulvan, a Seaweed-Derived Sulfated Polysaccharide: An Updated Comprehensive Review

Cancer is one of the most worldwide spread diseases and causes maximum death. Treatment of cancer depends on the host immune system and the type of drugs. The inefficiency of conventional cancer treatments as a result of drug resistance, nontargeted delivery, and chemotherapy-related negative side effects has caused bioactive phytochemicals to come into focus. As a result, recent years have seen an increase in research into screening and identifying natural compounds with anticancer properties. Recent studies on the isolation and use of polysaccharides derived from various marine algal species have revealed a variety of biological activities, including antioxidant and anticancer properties. Ulvan is a polysaccharide derived from various green seaweeds of the Ulva species in the family Ulvaceae. It has been demonstrated to have potent anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties through the modulation of antioxidants. It is vital to understand the mechanisms underlying the biotherapeutic activities of Ulvan in cancer and its role in immunomodulation. In this context, we reviewed the anticancer effects of ulvan based on its apoptotic effects and immunomodulatory activity. Additionally, we also focused on its pharmacokinetic studies in this review. Ulvan is the most conceivable candidate for use as a cancer therapeutic agent and could be used to boost immunity. Moreover, it may be established as an anticancer drug once its mechanisms of action are understood. Due to its high food and nutritive values, it can be used as a possible dietary supplement for cancer patients in the near future. This review may provide fresh perspectives on the potential novel role of ulvan, reveal a brand-new cancer-prevention strategy, and improve human health.

An overview on the nutritional and bioactive components of green seaweeds

Green seaweed, as the most abundant species of macroseaweeds, is an important marine biological resource. It is a rich source of several amino acids, fatty acids, and dietary fibers, as well as polysaccharides, polyphenols, pigments, and other active substances, which have crucial roles in various biological processes such as antioxidant activity, immunoregulation, and anti-inflammatory response. In recent years, attention to marine resources has accelerated the exploration and utilization of green seaweeds for greater economic value. This paper elaborates on the main nutrients and active substances present in different green seaweeds and provides a review of their biological activities and their applications for high-value utilization.

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Reconciling the Gap between Medications and their Potential Leads: The Role of Marine Metabolites in the Discovery of New Anticancer Drugs: A Comprehensive Review

One-third of people will be diagnosed with cancer at some point in their lives, making it the second leading cause of death globally each year after cardiovascular disease. The complex anticancer molecular mechanisms have been understood clearly with the advent of improved genomic, proteomic, and bioinformatics. Our understanding of the complex interplay between numerous genes and regulatory genetic components within cells explaining how this might lead to malignant phenotypes has greatly expanded. It was discovered that epigenetic resistance and a lack of multitargeting drugs were highlighted as major barriers to cancer treatment, spurring the search for innovative anticancer treatments. It was discovered that epigenetic resistance and a lack of multitargeting drugs were highlighted as major barriers to cancer treatment, spurring the search for innovative anticancer treatments. Many popular anticancer drugs, including irinotecan, vincristine, etoposide, and paclitaxel, have botanical origins. Actinomycin D and mitomycin C come from bacteria, while bleomycin and curacin come from marine creatures. However, there is a lack of research evaluating the potential of algae-based anticancer treatments, especially in terms of their molecular mechanisms. Despite increasing interest in the former, and the promise of the compounds to treat tumours that have been resistant to existing treatment, pharmaceutical development of these compounds has lagged. Thus, the current review focuses on the key algal sources that have been exploited as anticancer therapeutic leads, including their biological origins, phytochemistry, and the challenges involved in converting such leads into effective anticancer drugs.

Effect of Dietary Administration of Green Macroalgae (Ulva intestinalis) on Mucosal and Systemic Immune Parameters, Antioxidant Defence, and Related Gene Expression in Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

This study investigated the effects of adding green macroalgae gutweed (Ulva intestinalis) powder to zebrafish (Danio rerio) feed at different levels on innate immune responses, antioxidant defence, and gene expression. A total of 600 zebrafish (0.3 ± 0.08 g) were randomly allocated to 12 aquariums in four treatments with three replicates (50 fish per aquarium). Zebrafish were fed with different levels of U. intestinalis powder 0, 0.25, 0.5, and 1% for eight weeks. Whole-body extract (WBE) immune parameters including total protein level, globulin level, and lysozyme activity were evaluated and revealed statistically significant increased in all U. intestinalis supplemented groups compared to the control (P < 0.05). However, mucus immune parameters (total protein, globulin, and lysozyme) were statistically different in only 1% gutweed supplemented groups from other groups. While glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) increased with the addition of gutweed (P < 0.05), catalase (CAT) did not change (P > 0.05). The study results showed that dietary gutweed remarkably upregulated immune-related genes such as lysozyme (Lyz) and Interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β). Antioxidant-related genes (SOD and CAT) and growth-related genes, including growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-1), were remarkably upregulated with gutweed treatment (P < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary U. intestinalis showed beneficial effects on immunity, and same effects were observed in case of antioxidant and growth related genes expression in zebrafish.

The variation on structure and immunomodulatory activity of polysaccharide during the longan pulp fermentation

In the current study, the effects of fermentation manners on the structure and immunomodulatory activity of polysaccharide in longan wine or vinegar were investigated. Compared to longan polysaccharide (CP1), polysaccharide in longan wine (CP2) or vinegar (CP3 and CP4) had smaller molecular weights, and was consisted of more mannose, arabinose, rhamnose, galactose and less glucose. After purification, the major fraction (P1-P4) was obtained from CP1-CP4, respectively. The structures and immunoregulatory activities of P1-P4 were characterized. Fermentation and purification were favorable to increase the immunoregulatory activities of P2-P4, which were contributed to their different structural features. The structure-activity relationship analysis indicated that molecular weight, mannose, rhamnose, glucuronic acid, glucose and arabinose were significantly associated with the cytokines secretion. Compared with other polysaccharides, P3 displayed better immunomodulatory activity due to its lower molecular weight, lower contents of rhamnose and glucose, and higher levels of mannose and arabinose by activating MAPK and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways.

Detailed Structural Analysis of the Immunoregulatory Polysaccharides from the Mycobacterium Bovis BCG

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin polysaccharide and nucleic acid (BCG-PSN), extracted from Mycobacterium bovis, is an immunoregulatory medicine commonly used in clinic. However, the structural characteristics and potential pharmacological efficacy of the polysaccharides from BCG-PSN remain unclear. Herein, two polysaccharides (BCG-1 and BCG-2) were purified and their structures were characterized. Monosaccharide composition analysis combined with methylation analysis and NMR data indicated that BCG-1 and BCG-2 were an α-D-(1→4)-mannan with (1→2)-linked branches, and an α-D-(1→4)-glucan with (1→6)-linked branches, respectively. Herein, the mannan from BCG-PSN was first reported. Bioactivity assays showed that BCG-1 and BCG-2 dose-dependently and potently increased the production of inflammatory mediators (NO, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and IL-10), as well as their mRNA expressions in RAW264.7 cells; both have similar or stronger effects compared with BCG-PSN injection. These data suggest that BCG-1 and BCG-2 are very likely the active ingredients of BCG-PSN.

Effect of steam explosion pretreatment on polysaccharide isolated from Poria cocos: Structure and immunostimulatory activity

This study aimed to examine the effects of steam explosion (SE) pretreatment on the structural characteristics and immunostimulatory activity of polysaccharide from Poria cocos. Results showed that the average molecular weights of native polysaccharide (PCP) and SE-pretreated polysaccharide (SEPCP) were 18.67 and 6.52 kDa, respectively. PCP and SEPCP shared the same profiles of monosaccharides (mannose, glucose, galactose, and fucose) in different composition ratios, that is, PCP in a molar percentage of 13.5:33:40.3:13.2 and SEPCP in a molar percentage of 2.1:90.3:5.8:1.8. The surface structure of PCP showed smooth and densely spherical particles, whereas SEPCP had a rough surface and porous honeycomb structure. The main linkage types of PCP comprised 1,6-α-d-Galp, 1,2,6-α-d-Glcp, and T-α-d-Manp, whereas SEPCP primarily contained 1,3-β-d-Glcp backbone and T-β-d-Glcp branches. Compared with PCP, we further revealed that SEPCP had a better immune enhancement on the phagocytic ability, NO production, and the secretion levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in RAW 264.7 cells. Collectively, our observations supported that SE pretreatment could help to change the structure and improve the immunostimulatory activity of polysaccharide from P. cocos. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: SE technology is extensively used to extract bioactive components with improved yields owing to this technology's benefits of low energy consumption and high efficiency. SE pretreatment was found to contribute to the destruction of cell-wall structure, which could help to enhance the extraction yields of P. cocos polysaccharide (PCP). Meanwhile, SE pretreatment also could change the structural features and improve the immunostimulatory activity of PCP. This study revealed that more bioactive PCP with strengthened immunoregulatory effect was obtained pretreated by SE. This study was able to provide the effective information on the application of steam explosion technology to promote the further development and utilization of PCP in the pharmaceutical and functional food fields.

Immunomodulatory Activity In Vitro and In Vivo of a Sulfated Polysaccharide with Novel Structure from the Green Alga Ulvaconglobata Kjellman

Algae accumulate large amounts of polysaccharides in their cell walls or intercellular regions. Polysaccharides from algae possess high potential as promising candidates for marine drug development. In this study, a sulfated polysaccharide, UCP, from the green alga Ulva conglobata Kjellman was obtained by water extraction, anion-exchange, and size-exclusion chromatography purification, and its structure was characterized by a combination of chemical and spectroscopic methods. UCP mainly consisted of →4)-α/β-l-Rhap-(1→, →4)-β-d-Xylp-(1→ and →4)-β-d-GlcAp-(1→ residues. Sulfate ester groups were substituted mainly at C-3 of →4)-l-Rhap-(1→ and C-2 of →4)-β-d-Xylp-(1→. Partial glycosylation was at C-2 of →4)-α-l-Rhap-(1→ residues. UCP possessed a potent immunomodulatory effect in vitro, evaluated by the assays of lymphocyte proliferation and macrophage phagocytosis. The immunomodulatory activity of UCP in vivo was further investigated using immunosuppressive mice induced by cyclophosphamide. The results showed that UCP markedly increased the spleen and thymus indexes and ameliorated the cyclophosphamide-induced damage to the spleen and thymus. UCP could increase the levels of white blood cells, lymphocytes, and platelets, and improve the hematopoietic inhibition caused by cyclophosphamide. Moreover, UCP significantly promoted the secretions of the immunoglobulin (Ig)G, IgE, and IgM. The data demonstrated that UCP is a novel sulfated polysaccharide and may be a promising immunomodulatory agent.

An insight to the therapeutic potential of algae-derived sulfated polysaccharides and polyunsaturated fatty acids: Focusing on the COVID-19

Covid-19 pandemic severely affected human health worldwide. The rapidly increasing COVID-19 cases and successive mutations of the virus have made it a major challenge for scientists to find the best and efficient drug/vaccine/strategy to counteract the virus pathogenesis. As a result of research in scientific databases, regulating the immune system and its responses with nutrients and nutritional interventions is the most critical solution to prevent and combat this infection. Also, modulating other organs such as the intestine with these compounds can lead to the vaccines' effectiveness. Marine resources, mainly algae, are rich sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds with known immunomodulatory properties and the gut microbiome regulations. According to the purpose of the review, algae-derived bioactive compounds with immunomodulatory activities, sulfated polysaccharides, and polyunsaturated fatty acids have a good effect on the immune system. In addition, they have probiotic/prebiotic properties in the intestine and modulate the gut microbiomes; therefore, they can increase the effectiveness of vaccines produced. Thus, they with respectable safety, immune regulation, and modulation of microbiota have potential therapeutic against infections, especially COVID-19. They can also be employed as promising candidates for the prevention and treatment of viral infections, such as COVID-19.

Structural characteristics and immunomodulatory effects of sulfated polysaccharides derived from marine algae

Marine algae are becoming an important source of valuable candidates of functional food that remain unexplored. Compositional analysis showed that marine algae contain essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and minerals, of which polysaccharides are the main bioactive component. Depending on the source, marine algae polysaccharides are sulfated, which have diverse structures and compositions that influence their biological activities. A growing body of evidence has demonstrated that sulfated polysaccharides derived from marine algae (SPs) exhibit various bioactivities, especially immunomodulation. This review aims at summarizing the structural characteristics of SPs, their immunomodulatory effects, and the structural-immunomodulatory activity relationships between them from articles in recent decade, in order to provide a theoretical basis for the further applications of SPs as promising food or feed additives and possible health products to modulate the immune response.

Isolation, characterization, immunoregulatory, and antioxidant activities of polysaccharides from Morinda officinalis fermented by Bacillus sp. DU-106

Morinda officinalis (M. officinalis) polysaccharides are valuable ingredients with various bioactive functions. This work aimed to investigate whether fermentation could enhance the bioactivities of M. officinalis polysaccharides. A strain of Bacillus sp. DU-106 was introduced to ferment M. officinalis. Two polysaccharides (namely NMP-1 and FMP-1) were isolated from raw M. officinalis and fermented M. officinalis, respectively. The structure, immunoregulatory, and antioxidant activities of NMP-1 and FMP-1 were investigated. Bacillus sp. DU-106 fermentation changed the monosaccharide composition and conformation of M. officinalis polysaccharides. After fermentation, FMP-1 dramatically stimulated IL-1β secretion in RAW 264.7 macrophages. In vitro, Bacillus sp. DU-106 fermentation of M. officinalis enhanced the DPPH radical, hydroxyl radical, and superoxide anion scavenging activities. In vivo, FMP-1 extended the lifespan and ameliorated oxidative injury of Caenorhabditis elegans. Collectively, Bacillus sp. DU-106 fermentation significantly enhanced the immunoregulatory and antioxidant activities of M. officinalis polysaccharides.

Nutraceutical potentials of algal ulvan for healthy aging

Several theories for aging are constantly put forth to explain the underlying mechanisms. Oxidative stress, DNA dysfunction, inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction, along with the release of cytochrome c are some of these theories. Diseases such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, intestinal dysfunction, cardiovascular diseases, hepatic injury, and even cancer develop with age and eventually cause death. Ulva polysaccharides, owing to their special structures and various functions, have emerged as desirable materials for keeping healthy. These polysaccharide structures are found to be closely related to the extraction methods, seaweed strains, and culture conditions. Ulvan is a promising bioactive substance, a potential functional food, which can regulate immune cells to augment inflammation, control the activity of aging-related genes, promote tumor senescence, enhance mitochondrial function, maintain liver balance, and protect the gut microbiome from inflammatory attacks. Given the desirable physiochemical and gelling properties of ulvan, it would serve to improve the quality and shelf-life of food.

Natural Polysaccharides as Preventive and Therapeutic Horizon for Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are a serious and widespread global public health burden amongst aging populations. The total estimated worldwide global cost of dementia was US$818 billion in 2015 and has been projected to rise to 2 trillion US$ by 2030. While advances have been made to understand different neurodegenerative disease mechanisms, effective therapeutic strategies do not generally exist. Several drugs have been proposed in the last two decades for the treatment of different types of neurodegenerative diseases, with little therapeutic benefit, and often with severe adverse and side effects. Thus, the search for novel drugs with higher efficacy and fewer drawbacks is an ongoing challenge in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease. Several natural compounds including polysaccharides have demonstrated neuroprotective and even therapeutic effects. Natural polysaccharides are widely distributed in plants, animals, algae, bacterial and fungal species, and have received considerable attention for their wide-ranging bioactivity, including their antioxidant, anti-neuroinflammatory, anticholinesterase and anti-amyloidogenic effects. In this review, we summarize different mechanisms involved in neurodegenerative diseases and the neuroprotective effects of natural polysaccharides, highlighting their potential role in the prevention and therapy of neurodegenerative disease.

The chemical structure and immunomodulatory activity of an exopolysaccharide produced by Morchella esculenta under submerged fermentation

The extracellular polysaccharide of Morchella esculenta cultivated under submerged fermentation was extracted. A single polysaccharide was purified through DEAE-Cellulose 52 and Sephadex G 100, and named as MEP 2a. The molecular weight of MEP 2a was determined by HPGPC and it is about 1391.5 kDa. MEP 2a is composed of mannose and glucose as the monosaccharide unit with a molar ratio of 8.15 : 1.07. The main polysaccharide chemical structure was analyzed by 1D and 2D NMR. Methylation and NMR analysis revealed that the backbone of MEP 2a consists of 1,3,4-linked-Manp, 1,2-linked-Manp and 1,6-linked-Glcp. 1D and 2D NMR results indicated that the main chain is based on →1)-β-D-Glcp-(6→, →1)-α-D-Manp-(3,4→, →1)-α-D-Manp-(2→) and the branch chain is composed of α-D-Manp-(1→, →1)-β-D-Glcp-(6→ and α-D-Glcp-(1→). MEP 2a promoted the phagocytosis function and secretion of NO, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α of macrophages. In the present study, the chemical structure and immunomodulatory ability of an extracellular polysaccharide of Morchella esculenta was investigated which guarantees further research studies and promising applications.

Efficacy of ulvan on immune response and immuno-antioxidant gene modulation in Labeo rohita against columnaris disease

This study reports the effect of ulvan enriched diet on the influence of growth, changes in hemato-biochemical indices, improvement of antioxidant system, enhancement of innate-adaptive immunity and modification of immuno-antioxidant genes expression in Labeo rohita against Flavobacterium columnaris. The weight gain (WG) was significantly high (P > 0.05) in unchallenged normal and challenged fish fed with diets enriched with 25 and 50 mg kg^-1 ulvan; the FCR was better (P > 0.05) when fed with 50 mg kg^-1 enriched diet. In normal fish fed with or without ulvan supplementation was noted 100% survival rate (SR). In both groups, the red blood cell (RBC) and while blood cell (WBC) counts increased significantly (P > 0.05) when fed with 50 mg kg^-1 ulvan diet whereas the hemoglobin (Hb) level increased significantly on being fed with 25 and 50 mg kg^-1 ulvan diets. The SOD activity was enhanced significantly in both groups fed with any dose of ulvan diets whereas the MDA and GPx activity increased only with 25 and 50 mg kg^-1 ulvan diets. The phagocytic (PC) activity significantly increased with any enriched diet and control diet groups while the respiratory burst (RB) activity increased only with 50 mg kg^-1 ulvan diet. The alternate complement pathway (ACP), activity of lysozyme (Lyz), and immunoglobuline M (IgM) were better in both groups fed with 50 mg kg^-1 ulvan diet. The SOD and GPx antioxidant gene expression were significantly high in both groups fed with any ulvan diet while the Nrf2 gene expression was high with 50 mg kg^-1 ulvan diet. The IL-1β, TNFα, hepcidin, Lyz, and IgM cytokines or proteins mRNA expression were significant in both groups fed with all ulvan supplement diet whereas the β-2M expression was significant only with 50 mg kg^-1 ulvan diet. The present research indicates that both L. rohita groups fed with 50 mg kg^-1 ulvan diet significantly improved growth, antioxidant system, immune defense system, and immuno-antioxidant related gene expression against F. columnaris.

Production of Ulvan Oligosaccharides with Antioxidant and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme-Inhibitory Activities by Microbial Enzymatic Hydrolysis

Seaweed oligosaccharides have attracted attention in food, agricultural, and medical applications recently. Compared to red and brown seaweeds, fewer studies have focused on the biological activity of green seaweed’s oligosaccharides. This study aimed to produce bioactive ulvan oligosaccharides via enzymatic hydrolysis from green seaweed Ulva lactuca. Ulvan, a water-soluble polysaccharide, was obtained by hot water extraction. Two isolated marine bacteria, Pseudomonas vesicularis MA103 and Aeromonas salmonicida MAEF108, were used to produce multiple hydrolases, such as ulvanolytic enzymes, amylase, cellulase, and xylanase, to degrade the ulvan extract. An ultrafiltration system was used to separate the enzymatic hydrolysate to acquire the ulvan oligosaccharides (UOS). The characteristics of the ulvan extract and the UOS were determined by yield, reducing sugar, uronic acid, sulfate group, and total phenols. The FT-IR spectrum indicated that the ulvan extract and the UOS presented the bands associated with O-H, C=O, C-O, and S=O stretching. Angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition and antioxidant activities in vitro were evaluated in the ulvan extract and the UOS. These results provide a practical approach to producing bioactive UOS by microbial enzymatic hydrolysis that can benefit the development of seaweed-based products at the industrial scale.

Cancer-fighting potentials of algal polysaccharides as nutraceuticals

Cancer has been listed as one of the world's five incurable diseases by the World Health Organization and causes tens of thousands of deaths every year. Unfortunately, anticancer agents either show limited efficacy or show serious side effects. The algae possess high nutritional value and their polysaccharides have a variety of biological activities, especially anti-cancer and immunomodulatory properties. Algal polysaccharides exert anti-cancer effects by inducing apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, anti-angiogenesis, and regulating intestinal flora and immune function. Algal polysaccharides can be combined with nanoparticles and other drugs to reduce the side effects caused by chemotherapy and increase the anticancer effects. This review shows the signal pathways related to the anti-cancer mechanisms of algal polysaccharides, including their influence on intestinal flora and immune regulation, the application of nanoparticles, and the effects on combination therapy and clinical trials of cancer treatments.

Purification, structural characterization and immunostimulatory activity of polysaccharides from Umbilicaria esculenta

In this study, an active component UP1-1 was isolated from Chinese Huangshan Umbilicaria esculenta via hot water extraction and purified by anion-exchange and gel-filtration chromatography. UP1-1 mainly composed of galactose, mannose and glucose in a molar ratio of 0.8:1.0:4.6 with an average molecular weight of 281 kDa. Methylation analysis of UP1-1 revealed the major glycosidic bonds comprised 1,6-linked Glcp, 1,4-linked Glcp, t-linked Glcp, 1,3,6-linked Manp, 1,3-linked Galp, t-linked Galp at the ratio of 2.28:0.38:0.32:0.63:0.25:0.29. Structural analysis results revealed that the backbone of UP1-1 consisted of →6)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, →6)-β-D-Manp-(1→, →4)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → residues with side chains of →3)-β-D-Galp-(1→, β-D-Galp-(1 → and β-D-Glcp-(1 → branches located at O-3 position of →6)-β-D-Manp-(1→. Immunostimulatory activity tests showed that UP1-1 could promote the phagocytic activity and NO production of RAW 264.7 cells in a dose-dependent manner. UP1-1 could significantly improve the proliferation effect of RAW 264.7 cells at the concentration of 50 μg/mL. Thus, UP1-1 exerted good immunostimulatory activity, suggesting that UP1-1 has a great potential application in pharmacological industry.

Structure, antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity of a polysaccharide extracted from Sacha inchi seeds

In this study, a novel water-soluble polysaccharide (PVLP-1) was extracted and purified from Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) seeds and the structure, antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity of PVLP-1 were investigated. PVLP-1 (144 kDa) consisted of glucose (69.76%), mannose (14.86%), arabinose (10.53%), galactose (2.42%), ribose (1.23%), rhamnose (0.27%) and xylose (0.93%). PVLP-1 displayed characteristic polysaccharide bands in Fourier transform NMR spectra and infrared. The primary structure of PVLP-1 was a heteropolysaccharide with a backbone of (1 → 6)-linked glucose, sidechains of (1 → 4)-linked mannose, (1 → 4)-linked glucose and (1 → 3, 6)-linked mannose and a residue unit of →1)-linked arabinose as revealed the methylation analysis. PVLP-1 possessed good water-holding capacity (WHC), oil-holding capacity (OHC) and antioxidant capacities. Besides, PVLP-1 induced the proliferation of RAW264.7 cell and enhanced the expression of inflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-alpha(TNF-α) and IL-1 beta (IL-1β). The present study indicated that PVLP-1 possessed immune-enhancing bioactivities and could be functional food or adjuvant drug to improve biological immunity of immunodeficiency diseases and hypoimmunity.

Immunostimulant and biocompatible gold and silver nanoparticles synthesized using the Ulva intestinalis L. aqueous extract

This is the first study to report on the biocompatible and immunogenic properties of one-pot synthesised gold and silver nanoparticles (Au@UI and Ag@UI) using the macroalgae Ulva intestinalis (UI). The UI aqueous extract, Au@UI, and Ag@UI were obtained under sterile conditions and fully characterized by UV-vis spectroscopy, TEM, HRTEM, STEM and FTIR spectroscopy. Moreover, for the first time, the composition of carbohydrates in the UI extract has been reported along with the changes observed after nanoparticle synthesis by size exclusion chromatography, in order to investigate their possible role in the biosynthetic process. This study suggested that the polysaccharide fraction of the extract is involved in the formation and stabilization of the nanoparticles. The potential toxicity of the samples was evaluated using different cell lines and the hemocompatibility was tested in mouse erythrocytes. In addition, ROS production, complement activation and cytokine release were evaluated to determine the immunogenicity. The results showed that Au@UI and Ag@UI exhibit good biocompatibility and hemocompatibility, with the exception of Ag@UI nanoparticles at high concentration, which were hemolytic. The samples induced ROS release and complement activation, two key mechanisms in innate immunity. The samples also induced the release of cytokines from Th1 and Th2 profiles, and other cytokines implicated in the activation of the immune system. Au@UI and Ag@UI were biocompatible and preserved the immunostimulant properties of the UI extract. Hence, Au@UI and Ag@UI could be useful as adjuvants in vaccine development and promote a balanced Th1 and Th2 immune response mediated by ROS production, cytokine release and complement activation.

Ulvan, a Polysaccharide from Macroalga Ulva sp.: A Review of Chemistry, Biological Activities and Potential for Food and Biomedical Applications

The species of green macroalga belonging to the genus Ulva (family: Ulvaceae) are utilized in various fields, from food supplements to biomedical applications. Ulvan, a polysaccharide obtained from various Ulva species, has shown various biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antibacterial, and antiviral activities. To obtain the polysaccharide ulvan that can be utilized in various fields, it is necessary to understand the critical points that affect its physicochemical nature, the extraction procedures, and the mechanism of action for biological activities. This article discusses the physicochemical properties, extraction, isolation and characterization procedures and benefits in food and biomedical applications of ulvan. In conclusion, ulvan from Ulva sp. has the potential to be used as a therapeutic agent and also as an additional ingredient in the development of tissue engineering procedures.

Supramolecular structure, in vivo biological activities and molecular-docking-based potential cardiotoxic exploration of aconine hydrochloride monohydrate as a novel salt form

Despite the high profile of aconine in WuTou injection, there has been no preparative technology or structural studies of its salt as the pharmaceutical product. The lack of any halide salt forms is surprising as aconine contains a tertiary nitrogen atom. In this work, aconine was prepared from the degradation of aconitine in Aconiti kusnezoffii radix (CaoWu). A green chemistry technique was applied to enrich the lipophilic-poor aconine. Reaction of aconine with hydrochloride acid resulted in protonation of the nitrogen atom and gave a novel salt form (C₂₅H₄₂NO₉⁺·Cl^-·H₂O; aconine hydrochloride monohydrate, AHM), whose cation in the crystal structure was elucidated based on extensive spectroscopic and X-ray crystallographic analyses. The AHM crystal had a Z' = 3 structure with three independent cation-anion pairs, with profound conformational differences among the aconine cations. The central framework of each aconine cation was compared with that of previously reported aconitine, proving that protonation of the nitrogen atom induced the structure rearrangement. In the crystal of AHM, aconine cations, chloride anions and water molecules interacted through inter-species O-H...Cl and O-H...O hydrogen bonds; this complex hydrogen-bonding network stabilizes the supramolecular structure. The seriously disordered solvent molecules were treated using the PLATON SQUEEZE procedure [Spek (2015). Acta Cryst. C71, 9-18] and their atoms were therefore omitted from the refinement. Bioactivity studies indicated that AHM promoted in vitro proliferative activities of RAW264.7 cells. Molecular docking suggested AHM could target cardiotoxic protein through the hydrogen-bonding interactions. The structural confirmation of AHM offers a rational approach for improving the pharmaceutical technology of WuTou injection.

The molecular weight of ulvan affects the in vitro inflammatory response of a murine macrophage

Ulvan, a sulfated polysaccharide extracted from the green seaweed genus Ulva, has bioactive properties including an immunomodulating capacity. The immunomodulatory capacity of ulvan from Ulva ohnoi, however, has not been assessed in detail. We depolymerised purified ulvan from U. ohnoi to obtain a range of molecular weight fractions (M_w 7, 9, 13, 21, 209 kDa), which were characterised by constituent sugar analysis, SEC-MALLS, and NMR. Ulvan fractions contained 48.8-54.7 mol% rhamnose, 32.5-35.9 mol% glucuronic acid, 4.5-7.3 mol% iduronic acid, and 3.3-5.6 mol% xylose. ¹H and ¹³C NMR was consistent with hydrolysis occurring at the anomeric centre without further modification to the oligosaccharide structure. The in vitro immunomodulatory effect of ulvan fractions was quantified by measuring levels of inflammatory-mediating signalling molecules released from LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 murine macrophages. All ulvan fractions showed no toxicity on RAW264.7 cells at concentrations below 100 μg mL^-1 over 48 h. Secreted interleukin-10 and prostaglandin E2 demonstrated an anti-inflammatory effect by higher molecular weight ulvan fractions at 100 μg mL^-1. To a lesser extent, these fractions also enhanced the LPS-induced inflammation through minor increases of IL-1β and IL-6. This study confirms that ulvan from U. ohnoi has a mild in vitro immunomodulatory effect.

The Antioxidant Activity of Polysaccharides Derived from Marine Organisms: An Overview

Marine-derived antioxidant polysaccharides have aroused extensive attention because of their potential nutritional and therapeutic benefits. However, the comprehensive comparison of identified marine-derived antioxidant polysaccharides is still inaccessible, which would facilitate the discovery of more efficient antioxidants from marine organisms. Thus, this review summarizes the sources, chemical composition, structural characteristics, and antioxidant capacity of marine antioxidant polysaccharides, as well as their protective in vivo effects mediated by antioxidative stress reported in the last few years (2013-2019), and especially highlights the dominant role of marine algae as antioxidant polysaccharide source. In addition, the relationships between the chemical composition and structural characteristics of marine antioxidant polysaccharides with their antioxidant capacity were also discussed. The antioxidant activity was found to be determined by multiple factors, including molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, sulfate position and its degree.

Optimization of the traditional processing method for precision detoxification of CaoWu through biomimetic linking kinetics and human toxicokinetics of aconitine as toxic target marker

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

CaoWu (Aconiti Kusnezoffii Radix), well known for its high toxicity leading to fatal ventricular arrhythmias, is detoxified by HeZi (Terminalia Chebula Retz) decoction to prepare ZhiCaoWu (Aconiti Kusnezoffii Radix Preparata) as one part of ingredients of NaRu-3 pill which is used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Aconitine (AC) is a highly toxic alkaloid of CaoWu and it is used as toxic target marker for the quality control (QC) of ZhiCaoWu. In the traditional processing method, the vanish of astringent or spicy feeling in tongue is the important detoxification indicator of ZhiCaoWu. However, how CaoWu is detoxified to ZhiCaoWu and whether the appropriate content of AC in ZhiCaoWu can be efficiently perceived after the empirical detoxification still lack factual basis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study aimed to optimize the traditional processing method for precision detoxification of CaoWu through biomimetic linking kinetics and human toxicokinetics (TK) of AC, with a view of providing insights into the changes of toxic target marker.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CaoWu medicinal slices (Mes) and coarse powder (Cop) were processed by blank HeZi decoction through the soaking method for 7 days. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used for the analysis of the samples. The acidity of blank HeZi decoction and HeZi processing decoction was directly determined by pH meter. The non-compartment analysis (NCA) was used to have an intuitive appreciation for AC and pH changes in HeZi processing decoction while the compartment model method was used to build the biomimetic linking kinetics model with the covariate. The inter-species scaling of animal TK parameters was conducted to predict human AC TK profiles. The possible uptake ways of AC (rapid-release or extended-release) for humans were attempted to assess the poisoning risk of AC in NaRu-3 pill. Based on the target content of AC in ZhiCaoWu, the biomimetic linking kinetics model was explored to optimize the traditional processing detoxification method of CaoWu. The assays of determining inflammatory cytokines in lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells were performed to investigate the inflammatory modulation effects of AC in vitro.

RESULTS

ZhiCaoWu was prepared by eliminating redundant AC in CaoWu through the repeatable replacement of HeZi processing decoction in which its acidity (pH) was affected. AC-pH changes in HeZi processing decoction were adequately depicted by a biomimetic linking kinetics model whose predictive power was determined by comparing the predictions of AC in ZhiCaoWu with the reported data. Rapid-release AC at the converted dose of 111.1 and 417.6 μg (0.011 and 0.042% of AC in NaRu-3 pill) reached maximum blood concentrations of 26.1 and 98.1 ng/mL at 0.3 h, in comparison with minimum human lethal concentration (100 ng/mL). Achieving the target content of AC (0.04%) in ZhiCaoWu or AC (0.011%) in NaRu-3 pill to precisely control the poisoning risk, the potential optimized protocols were that the processing time at 0.2-0.8% of AC in CaoWu was 2.0-4.4 days for Cop and 2.7-6.2 days for Mes. Correspondingly, pH values in HeZi processing decoction were 3.95 and 3.77 for Cop and Mes, respectively. Meanwhile, Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells were exposed to 0, 20, and 200 μM of AC for 12 h and AC at 20 μM enhanced the levels of IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-α.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, for the first time, a biomimetic linking kinetics model was built to optimize the traditional detoxification method. Moreover, pH changes could be developed as surrogate endpoint for guiding the processing detoxification of CaoWu. Notably, setting the content limit of AC (0.011%) was very rational to control the poisoning risk of NaRu-3 pill. In addition, it was possible that there existed the more complex mechanisms of AC for inflammatory modulation in vitro.

Production of Active Poly- and Oligosaccharidic Fractions from Ulva sp. by Combining Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE) and Depolymerization

Data on fractionation and depolymerization of the matrix ulvan polysaccharides, and studies on the biological activities on skin cells, are very scarce. In this work, crude ulvans were produced by using EAE (enzyme-assisted extraction) and compared to maceration (an established procedure). After different fractionation procedures-ethanolic precipitation, dialysis, or ammonium sulfate precipitation-the biochemical composition showed that EAE led to an increased content in ulvans. Coupling EAE to sulfate ammonium precipitation led to protein enrichment. Oligosaccharides were obtained by using radical depolymerization by H2O2 and ion-exchange resin depolymerization. Sulfate groups were partially cleaved during these chemical treatments. The potential bioactivity of the fractions was assessed using a lipoxygenase inhibition assay for anti-inflammatory activity and a WST-1 assay for human dermal fibroblast viability and proliferation. All ulvans extracts, poly- and oligosaccharidic fractions from EAE, expanded the fibroblast proliferation rate up to 62%. Our research emphasizes the potential use of poly- and oligosaccharidic fractions of Ulva sp. for further development in cosmetic applications.

Production of Bioactive Compounds from the Sulfated Polysaccharides Extracts of Ulva lactuca: Post-Extraction Enzymatic Hydrolysis Followed by Ion-Exchange Chromatographic Fractionation

This paper describes a novel combined post-extraction process for obtaining bioactive compounds from the aqueous high molecular weight sulfated polysaccharides (SPs) extracts of the green algae, Ulva lactuca. After extracting the SPs, they were enzymatically hydrolyzed then the hydrolysate (V45) was fractionated into eight different molecular weight fractions (F1–F8) using ion exchange chromatography. Crude SPs together with V45 and (F1–F8) were examined for their carbohydrate, protein, and sulfate contents. In addition, their degree of polymerization (DP) was estimated and they were characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Fractions S1, F4, F5, and F8 showed promising antioxidant and antitumor activities in vitro. In particular, the remarkable antitumor activity of F5 on three types of cancer cell lines could be attributed to its comparable contents of protein, carbohydrate, and sulfate, in addition to its comparable contents of rhamnose and glucuronic acid, and the same for glucose and arabinose. F5 also possessed the highest Hill coefficient among the four promising fractions indicating a higher degree of cooperativity in ligand binding. Other influencing factors including DP, composition, and type of characteristic functional groups were also discussed. The implications of this work could potentially benefit the industries of food supplements and pharmaceuticals.

The efficacy of sulfated polysaccharides from Padina tetrastromatica in modulating the immune functions of RAW 264.7 cells

Immunomodulation is a collective term of immunostimulation and immunosuppression. Immunotherapy by means of immunomodulation is gaining additional significance as the frequency of mutant microbes as well as cancer cases are increasing in the present time. A wide population of marine vegetation has contributed to the traditional and modern therapeutic regimens owing to the abundance of bioactive molecules. Among the seaweed born macromolecules, the sulfated polysaccharides (SPS) from marine macro algae were reported to exhibit excellent biological activities in addition to their structural and nutritional roles. Interestingly, SPS from the marine brown algae Padina tetrastromatica is not yet explored for their immunomodulatory potential. In the present study, SPS were extracted by ethanol precipitation, purified using DEAE cellulose column chromatography, and named as Ethanolic Sulfated Polysaccharide-Column Purified (ESPs-CP). The study includes, evaluation of macrophage proliferation, prostaglandin and nitric oxide production, COX-2, 5-LOX, and iNOS estimation and gene expression studies in RAW 264.7 cells. ESPs-CP strongly stimulated macrophage proliferation and production of prostaglandin and nitric oxide. They also increased COX-2, 5-LOX, and iNOS concentration in macrophages, which was comparable to that of LPS stimulated macrophages. Increase of prostaglandin and NO production may be due to increased expression of COX-2 and iNOS as observed in gene expression studies. The mRNA expression of pro- inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and TGF-β were also enhanced by ESPs-CP. The evaluations signify the possibilities of SPS as potent immunostimulators during immune deficiencies.