Cyclocarya paliurus polysaccharide alleviates liver inflammation in mice via beneficial regulation of gut microbiota and TLR4/MAPK signaling pathways

Litchi pulp-derived gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) extract counteracts liver inflammation induced by litchi thaumatin-like protein

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the predominant amino acid in litchi pulp, known for its neuroregulatory effects and anti-inflammatory properties. Although previous research has highlighted the pro-inflammatory characteristics of litchi thaumatin-like protein (LcTLP), interplay between GABA and LcTLP in relation to inflammation remains unclear. This study aims to explore the hepatoprotective effects of the litchi pulp-derived GABA extract (LGE) against LcTLP-induced liver inflammation in mice and LO2 cells. In vivo experiments demonstrated that LGE significantly reduced the levels of aspartate transaminase and alanine transaminase, and protected the liver against infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and histological injury induced by LcTLP. Pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-6, interleukin-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α were also diminished by LGE. The LGE appeared to modulate the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway to exert its anti-inflammatory effects, as evidenced by a reduction of 47%, 35%, and 31% in phosphorylated p38, JNK, and ERK expressions, respectively, in the liver of the high-dose LGE group. Additionally, LGE effectively improved the translocation of gut microbiota by modulating its microbiological composition and abundance. In vitro studies have shown that LGE effectively counteracts the increase in reactive oxygen species, calcium ions, and pro-inflammatory cytokines induced by LcTLP. These findings may offer new perspectives on the health benefits and safety of litchi consumption.

Ameliorative effect of total ginsenosides from heat-treated fresh ginseng against cyclophosphamide-induced liver injury in mice

This study evaluated the effect of heat treatment on the conversion of ginsenoside and the ameliorative effect of heat-treated total ginsenoside (HG) from fresh ginseng on cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced liver injury. LC-MS analysis revealed that the content of rare ginsenosides increased markedly after heat treatment. HG significantly attenuated CTX-induced hepatic histopathological injury in mice. Western blotting analysis showed that untreated total ginsenoside (UG) and HG regulated the Nrf2/HO-1 and TLR4/MAPK pathways. Importantly, these results may be relevant to the modulation of the intestinal flora. UG and HG significantly increased the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)-producing bacteria Lactobacillus and reduced the LPS-producing bacteria Bacteroides and Parabacteroides. These changes in intestinal flora affected the levels of TNF-α, LPS and SCFAs. In short, UG and HG alleviated CTX-induced liver injury by regulating the intestinal flora and the LPS-TLR4-MAPK pathway, and HG was more effective. HG has the potential to be a functional food that can alleviate chemical liver injury.

Cyclocarya paliurus leaves alleviate high-sucrose diet-induced obesity by improving intestinal metabolic disorders

High-sucrose diets are common in daily life but harmful to human health. Cyclocarya paliurus leaves (CPL) are a kind of tea used to alleviate metabolic diseases and are widely used in China. However, the effects of CPL on high-sucrose-induced obesity are unknown. This study aimed to describe the changes in gut metabolism induced by a high-sucrose diet and to reveal the potential mechanisms through which CPL alleviate high-sucrose diet-induced obesity. A high-sucrose-induced obesity model was generated in C57BL/6J and KM mice. The effects of CPL on obese mice were evaluated, and changes in the gut microbiota and intestinal metabolites induced by CPL treatment were observed. Furthermore, the fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) method was used to prove that the effects of CPL on high-sucrose induced obesity depend on the changes of gut microbiota. The results of the C57BL/6J mouse experiment revealed that high-sucrose intake induced fat deposition and altered the gut microbiota. CPL treatment decreased fat deposition and alleviated disorders of the gut microbiota. Furthermore, CPL treatment increased the utilization of amnio acids, long fatty acids and saccharides and produced more bile acids, indole derivatives and less trimethylamine (TMA). A confirmatory experiment in KM mice also revealed that CPL can alleviate obesity, ameliorate intestinal metabolic disorders, and upregulate the expression of tight junction proteins in the intestinal mucosa. These results demonstrated that CPL could prevent high sucrose-induced obesity and generate more beneficial intestinal microbial metabolites but less harmful intestinal microbial metabolites.

The protective effect of Enteromorpha prolifera polysaccharide on alcoholic liver injury in C57BL/6 mice

An alcohol-induced liver injury model was induced in C57BL/6 mice to assess the protective efficacy of Enteromorpha prolifera polysaccharides (EP) against liver damage. Histological alterations in the liver were examined following hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining. Biochemical assay kits and ELISA kits were employed to analyze serum and liver biochemical parameters, as well as the activity of antioxidant enzymes and alcohol metabolism-related enzymes. The presence of oxidative stress-related proteins in the liver was detected using western blotting. Liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry were used to profile serum metabolites in mice. The findings demonstrated that EP-H (100 mg/Kg) reduced serum ALT and AST activity by 2.31-fold and 2.32-fold, respectively, when compared to the alcohol-induced liver injury group. H&E staining revealed a significant attenuation of microvesicular steatosis and ballooning pathology in the EP-H group compared to the model group. EP administration was found to enhance alcohol metabolism by regulating metabolite-related enzymes (ADH and ALDH) and decreasing CYP2E1 expression. EP also modulated the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway to bolster hepatic antioxidant capacity. Furthermore, EP restored the levels of lipid metabolites (Glycine, Butanoyl-CoA, and Acetyl-CoA) to normalcy. In summary, EP confers protection to the liver through the regulation of antioxidant activity and lipid metabolites in the murine liver.

Recent insights into the physicochemical properties, bioactivities and their relationship of tea polysaccharides

Tea polysaccharides (TPS) is receiving global concern in past years due to their therapeutic effects in many diseases such as obesity and diabetes. Many publications imply that the unique physicochemical properties and bioactivities of TPS are prerequisites for its use as a biofilm, drug carrier and emulsifier. Despite numerous healthy benefits, studies on the in-deep structure-activity relationship of TPS still not well explored and explained yet. The main reasons for the research limitation are attributed mainly to the unbreakable advanced structural research technology and the formation of TPS conjugates. The present review also summarizes some similar parameters in primary structure of TPS with better bioactivities, discusses the relationships between their physicochemical properties and bioactivities, and suggests that function-specific TPS would be obtained in the future if the links between preparation methods, physicochemical properties and bioactivities of TPS could be well understood and established.

Sweet triterpenoid glycoside from Cyclocarya paliurus ameliorates obesity-induced insulin resistance through inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammatory pathway

Our prophase studies have manifested that the sweet triterpenoid glycoside from the leaves of Cyclocarya paliurus (CPST) effectively improved the disorders of glucolipid metabolism in vitro and in patients. The current purpose was to further detect its mechanisms involved. The results demonstrated that CPST could ameliorate high-fat diet (HFD)-induced insulin resistance (IR), which was linked to reducing HFD-induced mice's body weight, serum glucose (GLUO), triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (T-CHO) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), lowering the area under the oral glucose tolerance curve and insulin tolerance, elevating the percentage of brown adipose, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), reducing fat droplets of adipocytes in interscapular brown adipose tissue (iBAT) and cross-sectional area of adipocytes. Further studies manifested that CPST obviously downregulated TLR4, MyD88, NLRP3, ASC, caspase-1, cleased-caspase-1, IL-18, IL-1β, TXNIP, and GSDMD protein expressions and p-NF-кB/NF-кB ratio in iBAT. These aforementioned findings demonstrated that CPST ameliorated HFD induced IR by regulating TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway, which in turn enhancing insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism.

Protective effect of arctiin against Toxoplasma gondii HSP70-induced allergic acute liver injury by disrupting the TLR4-mediated activation of cytosolic phospholipase A2 and platelet-activating factor

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii)-derived heat shock protein 70 (T.g.HSP70) is a toxic protein that downregulates host defense responses against T. gondii infection. T.g.HSP70 was proven to induce fatal anaphylaxis in T. gondii infected mice through cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) activated-platelet-activating factor (PAF) production via Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-mediated signaling. In this study, we investigated the effect of arctiin (ARC; a major lignan compound of Fructus arctii) on allergic liver injury using T.g.HSP70-stimulated murine liver cell line (NCTC 1469) and a mouse model of T. gondii infection. Localized surface plasmon resonance, ELISA, western blotting, co-immunoprecipitation, and immunofluorescence were used to investigate the underlying mechanisms of action of ARC on T. gondii-induced allergic acute liver injury. The results showed that ARC suppressed the T.g.HSP70-induced allergic liver injury in a dose-dependent manner. ARC could directly bind to T.g.HSP70 or TLR4, interfering with the interaction between these two factors, and inhibiting activation of the TLR4/mitogen-activated protein kinase/nuclear factor-kappa B signaling, thereby inhibiting the overproduction of cPLA2, PAF, and interferon-γ. This result suggested that ARC ameliorates T.g.HSP70-induced allergic acute liver injury by disrupting the TLR4-mediated activation of inflammatory mediators, providing a theoretical basis for ARC therapy to improve T.g.HSP70-induced allergic liver injury.

Polysaccharide from Sparassis latifolia alleviates intestinal barrier dysfunction in mice exposed to lead

Exposure to lead can have harmful effects on the intestines and gut microbiota, leading to toxicity. This study aimed to explore the protective role of Sparassis latifolia polysaccharide (SLP) in safeguarding the intestinal barrier of Kunming mice exposed to lead. The findings indicated that SLP effectively alleviates intestinal lesions, increases the density of cupped cells in the intestine, and reduces inflammation in both serum and the small intestine. Furthermore, SLP maintains the expression of key genes such as ZO-1, Occludin, Claudin-1, Lyz, Ang4, and ZO-2, as well as proteins like claudin-1 and Occludin-1. Furthermore, SLP positively impacts the diversity and richness of microorganisms in the mouse gut microbiota at both the genus and gate levels. It also increases the levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), including acetic acid, butyric acid, and propionic acid, to varying degrees. In summary, SLP plays a role in alleviating the impaired small intestinal barrier in lead-exposed mice by modulating the intestinal flora, which is consistent with reduced lead absorption. This modulation enhances the integrity of the intestinal barrier, suppresses inflammation, and facilitates the excretion of lead.

The Protective Effect of Auricularia cornea var. Li. Polysaccharide on Alcoholic Liver Disease and Its Effect on Intestinal Microbiota

This study's objective was to examine the protective effect and mechanism of a novel polysaccharide (AYP) from Auricularia cornea var. Li. on alcoholic liver disease in mice. AYP was extracted from the fruiting bodies of Auricularia cornea var. Li. by enzymatic extraction and purified by DEAE-52 and Sephacryl S-400. Structural features were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography, ion exchange chromatography and Fourier-transform infrared analysis. Additionally, alcoholic liver disease (ALD) mice were established to explore the hepatoprotective activity of AYP (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg/d). Here, our results showed that AYP presented high purity with a molecular weight of 4.64 × 105 Da. AYP was composed of galacturonic acid, galactose, glucose, arabinose, mannose, xylose, rhamnose, ribos, glucuronic acid and fucose (molar ratio: 39.5:32.9:23.6:18.3:6.5:5.8:5.8:3.3:2:1.1). Notably, AYP remarkably reduced liver function impairment (alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC)), nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA) of the liver and enhanced the activity of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and glutathione (gGSH)) in mice with ALD. Meanwhile, the serum level of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) were reduced in ALD mice treated by AYP. Furthermore, the AYPH group was the most effective and was therefore chosen to further investigate its effect on the intestinal microbiota (bacteria and fungi) of ALD mice. Based on 16s rRNA and ITS-1 sequencing data, AYP influenced the homeostasis of intestinal microbiota to mitigate the damage of ALD mice, possibly by raising the abundance of favorable microbiota (Muribaculaceae, Lachnospiraceae and Kazachstania) and diminishing the abundance of detrimental microbiota (Lactobacillus, Mortierella and Candida). This discovery opens new possibilities for investigating physiological activity in A. cornea var. Li. and provides theoretical references for natural liver-protecting medication research.

The protective effect of Nostoc commune Vauch. polysaccharide on alcohol-induced acute alcoholic liver disease and gut microbiota disturbance in mice

BACKGROUND

In recent years, the incidence of alcoholic liver disease (ALD) has gradually increased, the development of ALD is attached great attentions. Nostoc commune Vauch. polysaccharide (NCVP) is beneficial to maintain the gut health, but the protective effect of NCVP on the liver has not been reported yet.

PURPOSE

To study the protective effect and the underlying mechanisms of NCVP on ALD, a mouse model of acute ALD was established.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

We built an acute ALD mouse model and explored the protective effect of NCVP through the detection of cytokines, histological examination, determination of short chain fatty acids, and 16S rRNA analysis of gut microbiota.

RESULTS

NCVP had hepatoprotective effects on acute alcohol-induced mice by improving antioxidant capacity, reducing oxidative stress and the serum cytokine levels (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α). Simultaneously, histopathological changes in liver indicated that NCVP could inhibit local hepatocyte necrosis, cytoplasmic vacuolation and inflammatory cell infiltration induced by alcohol. NCVP also increased the level of total short-chain fatty acids of acute ALD mice. In addition, NCVP could significantly decrease the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio and the abundance of Patescibacteria, Helicobacter, and Actinomycetes and increase the abundance of Lachospiraceae, Prevotellaceae-UCG-003, Lactobacillaceae, and Desulfovibrio.

CONCLUSION

Our study proved that NCVP had in vivo hepatoprotective effect on acute ALD mice and provided scientific evidences that NCVP might be a promising drug candidate for the prevention and treatment of ALD.

Effect of natural polysaccharides on alcoholic liver disease: A review

In this study, we systematically collected relevant literature in the past five years on the intervention of natural polysaccharides in alcoholic liver disease (ALD) and reviewed the pharmacological activities and potential mechanisms of action. Natural polysaccharides are effective in preventing liver tissue degeneration, inhibiting the alcohol-induced expression of inflammatory factors, inactivation of antioxidant enzymes, and abnormal hepatic lipid deposition. Natural polysaccharides regulate the expression of proteins, such as tight junction proteins, production of small molecule metabolites, and balance of intestinal flora in the intestinal tract to alleviate ALD. Natural polysaccharides also exert therapeutic effects by modulating inflammatory, oxidative, lipid metabolism, and other pathways in the liver. Natural polysaccharides also inhibit alcohol-induced intestinal abnormalities by regulating intestinal flora and feeding back into the liver via the gut-liver axis. However, existing research on natural polysaccharides has many shortcomings: for example, most of the natural polysaccharides for testing are total polysaccharides or crude polysaccharides, progress in research on in vivo metabolic processes and mechanisms is slow, and the degree of industrialisation is insufficient. Finally, we discuss the difficulties in studying natural polysaccharides and future directions to provide a theoretical basis for their development and application.

The potential role of alfalfa polysaccharides and their sulphated derivatives in the alleviation of obesity

Sulfated alfalfa polysaccharides (SAPs) as derivatives of alfalfa polysaccharides (APs) showed better in vitro antioxidant activity and potential obesity inhibition. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect and mechanisms of APs and SAPs on obesity alleviation. Different concentrations of APs and SAPs were tested for effects on body conditions, gut flora, antioxidant capacity, and immunological factors. The results showed that APs and SAPs improved the physical conditions of obese mice, including organ weight, body weight, intraperitoneal fat ratio, and lipid levels. APs and SAPs increased the antioxidant capacity of the obese mice, enhanced the activity of SOD and CAT, and decreased the activity of MDA in the serum, liver, and colon. APs and SAPs upregulated the mRNA expression of IL-4 and IL-10 and downregulated the mRNA expression of NF-κB, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-6 in the liver and colon. Meanwhile, APs and SAPs improved lipid absorption in the jejunum, upregulated LXR and GLP-2, and down-regulated the mRNA expression of NPC1L1. APs and SAPs also contributed to restoring short-chain fatty acid levels in the colon. APs and SAPs improved the structure of the intestinal flora, promoted the proliferation of bacteria associated with short-chain fatty acid metabolism, and inhibited the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria. At the same concentration, the effect of SAPs on the antioxidant capacity was stronger than that of APs. In the AP group, high concentrations of APs showed the best anti-inflammatory effect, while in the SAP group, medium concentrations of SAPs showed the best inhibition of inflammation. Our results suggest that APs and SAPs alleviate obesity symptoms by relieving inflammation, improving the antioxidant capacity, and regulating intestinal flora and therefore could be used as potential probiotic products to alleviate obesity.

A Rational Combination of Cyclocarya paliurus Triterpene Acid Complex (TAC) and Se-Methylselenocysteine (MSC) Improves Glucose and Lipid Metabolism via the PI3K/Akt/GSK3β Pathway

Cyclocarya paliurus (CP) contains triterpene acids that can improve glucose and lipid metabolism disorders. However, controlling the composition and content of these active ingredients in CP extracts is challenging. The main active components in CP triterpene acids, including ursolic acid (UA), oleanolic acid (OA), and betulinic acid (BA), exhibit antihyperglycemic and antihypertensive effects. The response surface methodology was utilized to design and optimize the ratio of UA, OA, and BA based on the inhibition rate of pancrelipase and α-amylase. The proportional mixture of UA, OA, and BA resulted in the formation of a complex known as Cyclocarya paliurus triterpenoid acid (TAC). Se-methylselenocysteine (MSC), a compound with various physiological functions such as antioxidant properties and tumor inhibition, has been used in combination with TAC to form the TAC/MSC complex. Our data demonstrate that TAC/MSC improved palmitic acid (PA)-induced insulin resistance in HepG2 cells through activating the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) /protein kinase B (AKT)/glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) pathway. Moreover, TAC/MSC effectively improved hyperglycemia, glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, and lipid metabolism disorder in mice with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), attenuated hepatic steatosis, and reduced oxidative stress to alleviate T2DM characteristics.

Glaucocalyxin A attenuates carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis and improves the associated gut microbiota imbalance

Liver fibrosis refers to the pathophysiological process of dysplasia on the connective tissue of the liver, caused by a variety of pathogenic factors. Glaucocalyxin A (GLA) has anticoagulation, antibacterial, anti-inflammation, antioxidant and antitumour properties. However, whether GLA ameliorates liver fibrosis or not is still unclear. In this study, a liver fibrosis model was established using male C57BL/6 mice. The mice were treated with 5 and 10 mg/kg GLA via intraperitoneal injection, respectively. The ones that were treated with 5 mg/kg OCA were used as the positive control group. The levels of liver function, liver fibrosis biomarkers and liver pathological changes were then evaluated. We also explored the effects of GLA on inflammatory response and liver cell apoptosis. In addition, we investigated the gut microbiota mechanisms of GLA on liver fibrosis. The results from this study that GLA could significantly decrease the level of liver function (AST, ALT, TBA) and liver fibrosis (HA, LN, PC-III, IV-C). On the other hand, a significant decrease in inflammation levels (IL-1β, TNF-α) were also noted. GLA also improves CCl4-induced pathological liver injuries and collagen deposition, in addition to decreasing apoptosis levels. In addition, an increase in the ratio of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes in liver disease was also observed. GLA also improves the gut microbiota. In conclusion, GLA attenuates CCl4-induced liver fibrosis and improves the associated gut microbiota imbalance.

The Role of Carbohydrate Intake on the Gut Microbiome: A Weight of Evidence Systematic Review

(1) Background: Carbohydrates are the most important source of nutritional energy for the human body. Carbohydrate digestion, metabolism, and their role in the gut microbiota modulation are the focus of multiple studies. The objective of this weight of evidence systematic review is to investigate the potential relationship between ingested carbohydrates and the gut microbiota composition at different taxonomic levels. (2) Methods: Weight of evidence and information value techniques were used to evaluate the relationship between dietary carbohydrates and the relative abundance of different bacterial taxa in the gut microbiota. (3) Results: The obtained results show that the types of carbohydrates that have a high information value are: soluble fiber with Bacteroides increase, insoluble fiber with Bacteroides and Actinobacteria increase, and Firmicutes decrease. Oligosaccharides with Lactobacillus increase and Enterococcus decrease. Gelatinized starches with Prevotella increase. Starches and resistant starches with Blautia decrease and Firmicutes increase. (4) Conclusions: This work provides, for the first time, an integrative review of the subject by using statistical techniques that have not been previously employed in microbiota reviews.

Alleviative effects of natural plant polysaccharides against DSS-induced ulcerative colitis via inhibiting inflammation and modulating gut microbiota

Ulcerative colitis (UC) treatment usually involves either drug therapy or surgery. Natural food polysaccharides have showed great potential for preventing UC. In this study, the therapeutic effects of Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) Iljinskaja polysaccharide (CP) and Chinese yam polysaccharide (CYP) on dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced mice UC model and their underlying mechanisms were explored. The results suggested that CP and CYP could improve colitis symptoms in DSS-induced mice, enhance the production of IL-10, inhibit cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α) and reduce MPO activity. Furthermore, they maintained the integrity of intestine by improving the expression of mucin MUC-2, ZO-1 and occludin, which in turn reduced the contents of lipopolysaccharide binding protein (LBP) and endotoxin (ET) in serum and oxidative stress in liver. Finally, they modulated the composition and metabolism of gut microbiota. Notably, Alistipes and Bacteroides were the specific genera in CP and CYP groups, respectively. These findings indicated that polysaccharides might alleviate the development of colitis and inform other relevant studies.

Cordyceps militaris polysaccharide alleviates ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma through the Nrf2/HO-1 and NF-κB signaling pathways and regulates the gut microbiota

Polysaccharides, as one of the main types of bioactive components of Cordyceps militaris, have anti-allergic asthma effects. Herein, an ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma mouse model was established to assess the potential mechanisms of the separated and purified Cordyceps militaris polysaccharide (CMP). CMP is an α-pyranose with a molecular weight of 15.94 kDa that consists of Glc, Man, Gal, Xyl, Ara and GlcA in a molar ratio of 81.25:21.96:13.88:3.92:3.58:1.00. CMP improved inflammatory cytokine levels, alleviated the histopathological changes in the lung and intestinal tissues, regulated the expression of mRNA and proteins related to oxidative stress and inflammatory pathways, reversed gut dysbiosis at the phylum and family levels and improved microbiota function in allergic asthma mice. Moreover, it was found that the levels of inflammatory cytokines in lung tissue of mice were significantly correlated with some intestinal microbial communities. Overall, CMP improved oxidative stress and the inflammatory response in allergic asthma mice by regulating the Nrf2/HO-1 and NF-κB signaling pathways, which may be closely correlation with maintaining the stability of the gut microbiota.

Toxic mechanism of the Mongolian medicine "Hunqile-7" based on metabonomics and the metabolism of intestinal flora

The traditional Mongolian medicine Hunqile-7 (HQL-7), which is mainly used to relieve pain in clinic, has certain toxicity. Therefore, toxicological investigation of HQL-7 is of great significance to its safety assessment. In this study, the toxic mechanism of HQL-7 was explored based on a combination of metabolomics and intestinal flora metabolism. UHPLC-MS was used to analyze the serum, liver and kidney samples of rats after intragastric administration of HQL-7. The decision tree and K Nearest Neighbor (KNN) model were established based on the bootstrap aggregation (bagging) algorithm to classify the omics data. After samples were extracted from rat feces, the high-throughput sequencing platform was used to analyze the 16s rRNA V3-V4 region of bacteria. The experimental results confirm that the bagging algorithm improved the classification accuracy. The toxic dose, toxic intensity, and toxic target organ of HQL-7 were determined in toxicity tests. Seventeen biomarkers were identified and the metabolism dysregulation of these biomarkers may be responsible for the toxicity of HQL-7 in vivo. Several kinds of bacteria was demonstrated to be closely related to the physiological indices of renal and liver function, indicating liver and kidney damage induced by HQL-7 may be related to the disturbance of these intestinal bacteria. Overall, the toxic mechanism of HQL-7 was revealed in vivo, which not only provides a scientific basis for the safe and rational clinical use of HQL-7, but also opens up a new field of research on big data for Mongolian medicine.

Lentinan improves intestinal inflammation and gut dysbiosis in antibiotics-induced mice

Gut microbiota dysbiosis is already a global problem after antibiotic overuse. This study was to investigate the therapeutic effect of lentinan and the mechanism of recovery of intestinal inflammation on broad-spectrum antibiotic-driven gut microbial dysbiosis in mice. Gut microbiota was elucidated by the Illumina MiSeq platform. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry was used to investigate short-chain fatty acid content. Colon histology, expression of tight-junction associated proteins and pro-inflammatory cytokines levels were evaluated. The results showed that the gut microbiota of diversity and richness were reduced and various taxonomic levels of the gut microbiota were perturbed after antibiotics gavage. The abundance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes shifted to Proteobacteria and increased the relative abundance of harmful microbiota (Parabacteroides and Klebsiella) post-antibiotics, whereas lentinan administration reversed the dysbiosis and increased beneficial microbiota, including S24-7, Lactobacillus, Oscillospira, Ruminococcus and Allobaculum. The concentrations of propionic acid and butyric acid were significantly increased by treatment with lentinan. And lentinan improved colon tissue morphology and reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines via altering NF-κB signaling pathway in antibiotic-driven gut microbial dysbiosis mice. Taken together, the results proved that lentinan can be used as a prebiotic and the result provided a theoretical basis for improving the clinical treatment of broad-spectrum antibiotics side effects.

Selenium-containing polysaccharide from Spirulina platensis alleviates Cd-induced toxicity in mice by inhibiting liver inflammation mediated by gut microbiota

Selenium-containing polysaccharide from Spirulina platensis (Se-SPP) has been demonstrated to help in inhibiting cadmium-induced injury in mice, but the underlying mechanism has not been determined. This study aimed to investigate the beneficial effects of Se-SPP on alleviating Cd-induced toxicity in mice by targeting liver inflammatory and gut microbiota. Se-SPP supplementation for 28 days in Cd-induced toxic mice significantly mitigated liver pathological damage and inflammation, which was correlated to the upregulation of antioxidant enzyme activity. Furthermore, Se-SPP effectively restored Cd-induced disruption of the intestinal barrier compared to model group, as indicated by the depletion of Muribaculaceae and the enrichment of Ruminococcaceae. Spearman's correlation analysis revealed that the Se-SPP-altered microbes were highly correlated with inflammation-related indexes in Cd-induced toxic mice. Noteworthily, the modulation of Se-SPP on the Ruminococcaceae population contributed to the improvement of Cd-induced inflammation-related diseases by downregulating the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in the liver. These findings suggested that Se-SPP may act as prebiotics for ameliorating Cd-induced toxicity in mice by inhibiting liver inflammation mediated by gut microbiota, and target-specific microbiota of Cd-induced inflammation-related diseases deserve further attention.

Therapeutic potential of non-starch polysaccharides on type 2 diabetes: from hypoglycemic mechanism to clinical trials

Non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) have been reported to exert therapeutic potential on managing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Various mechanisms have been proposed; however, several studies have not considered the correlations between the anti-T2DM activity of NSPs and their molecular structure. Moreover, the current understanding of the role of NSPs in T2DM treatment is mainly based on in vitro and in vivo data, and more human clinical trials are required to verify the actual efficacy in treating T2DM. The related anti-T2DM mechanisms of NSPs, including regulating insulin action, promoting glucose metabolism and regulating postprandial blood glucose level, anti-inflammatory and regulating gut microbiota (GM), are reviewed. The structure-function relationships are summarized, and the relationships between NSPs structure and anti-T2DM activity from clinical trials are highlighted. The development of anti-T2DM medication or dietary supplements of NSPs could be promoted with an in-depth understanding of the multiple regulatory effects in the treatment/intervention of T2DM.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of an aminoglycan-rich exopolysaccharide from the submerged fermentation of Bacillus thuringiensis

Proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis are widely used as biopesticides but little is known about its exopolysaccharides. The exopolysaccharide BPS-2 was extracted from B. thuringiensis IX-01 after high-cell-density fermentation. BPS-2 is a heteropolysaccharide (molecular weight 29.36 kDa) composed of D-galactosamine, arabinose, glucosamine, glucose, and mannose in molar ratios 5.53: 1.77:4.74:3.24:1. In vitro upper gastrointestinal simulations showed that BPS-2 has strong anti-digestive capacity, with scavenging of DPPH, hydroxyl, ABTS, and superoxide anions radicals of 31.34 ± 1.67 %, 32.43 ± 3.01 %, 34.31 ± 2.12 %, and 48.53 ± 3.55 %, respectively, after BPS-2 entered the colon. It significantly inhibited production of lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide and multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines and had proliferative effects on RAW 264.7 cells. BPS-2 inhibited malondialdehyde secretion and elevated activities of glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and total antioxidants, significantly improving the antioxidant status of inflammation model cells. This first report of the in vitro anti-inflammation and antioxidant properties of BPS-2 from B. thuringiensis provides a basis for biopharmaceutical applications.

Progress in Research on the Alleviation of Glucose Metabolism Disorders in Type 2 Diabetes Using Cyclocarya paliurus

Globally, the incidence of diabetes is increasing annually, and China has the largest number of patients with diabetes. Patients with type 2 diabetes need lifelong medication, with severe cases requiring surgery. Diabetes treatment may cause complications, side-effects, and postoperative sequelae that could lead to adverse health problems and significant social and economic burdens; thus, more efficient hypoglycemic drugs have become a research hotspot. Glucose metabolism disorders can promote diabetes, a systemic metabolic disease that impairs the function of other organs, including the heart, liver, and kidneys. Cyclocarya paliurus leaves have gathered increasing interest among researchers because of their effectiveness in ameliorating glucose metabolism disorders. At present, various compounds have been isolated from C. paliurus, and the main active components include polysaccharides, triterpenes, flavonoids, and phenolic acids. C. paliurus mainly ameliorates glucose metabolism disorders by reducing glucose uptake, regulating blood lipid levels, regulating the insulin signaling pathway, reducing β-cell apoptosis, increasing insulin synthesis and secretion, regulating abundances of intestinal microorganisms, and exhibiting α-glucosidase inhibitor activity. In this paper, the mechanism of glucose metabolism regulation by C. paliurus was reviewed to provide a reference to prevent and treat diabetes, hyperlipidaemia, obesity, and other metabolic diseases.

Effect of Polysaccharide Extracted From Gynostemma Pentaphyllum on the Body Weight and Gut Microbiota of Mice

Researchers have investigated the role of polysaccharides in disease treatment via gut microbiota regulation but ignore their function in disease prevention and physique enhancement. In this work, a Gynostemma pentaphyllum polysaccharide (GPP) was tested by methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay and proved to be safe to Caco-2 cells. Animal experiments showed that the administration of GPP for 3 weeks decreased the body weight gain of mice from 15.4 ± 1.7 to 12.2 ± 1.8 g in a concentration-dependent manner. Analysis of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) indicated that GPP increased the levels of acetate, propionate, butyrate, and total SCFAs in the cecum contents of normal mice. Furthermore, GPP improved the species richness and abundance in the gut microbiota but reduced the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio from 0.8021 to 0.3873. This work provides a basis for incorporating GPP into diet to prevent or mitigate the occurrence of obesity via gut microbiota regulation.

Panax quinquefolius Polysaccharides Ameliorate Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhoea Induced by Lincomycin Hydrochloride in Rats via the MAPK Signaling Pathways

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) is an herbal medicine with polysaccharides as its important active ingredient. The purpose of this research was to identify the effects of the polysaccharides of P. quinquefolius (WQP) on rats with antibiotic-associated diarrhoea (AAD) induced by lincomycin hydrochloride. WQP was primarily composed of galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose, and arabinose. The yield, total sugar content, uronic acid content, and protein content were 6.71%, 85.2%, 31.9%, and 2.1%, respectively. WQP reduced the infiltration of inflammatory cells into the ileum and colon, reduced the IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17A, and TNF-α levels, increased the levels of IL-4 and IL-10 in colon tissues, improved the production of acetate and propionate, regulated the gut microbiota diversity and composition, improved the relative richness of Lactobacillus and Bacteroides, and reduced the relative richness of Blautia and Coprococcus. The results indicated that WQP can enhance the recovery of the intestinal structure in rats, reduce inflammatory cytokine levels, improve short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) levels, promote recovery of the gut microbiota and intestinal mucosal barrier, and alleviate antibiotic-related side effects such as diarrhoea and microbiota dysbiosis caused by lincomycin hydrochloride. We found that WQP can protect the intestinal barrier by increasing Occludin and Claudin-1 expression. In addition, WQP inhibited the MAPK inflammatory signaling pathway to improve the inflammatory status. This study provides a foundation for the treatment of natural polysaccharides to reduce antibiotic-related side effects.

Glucopyranose from Pleurotus geesteranus prevent alcoholic liver diseases by regulating Nrf2/HO-1-TLR4/NF-κB signalling pathways and gut microbiota

This study investigated the effects of PGPs (Pleurotus geesteranus polysaccharides), a glucopyranose isolated from the mycelium of Pleurotus geesteranus and characterized with the main chain of →4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, on the prevention against alcohol liver diseases (ALD), with the aim of providing a theoretical basis for the application of P. geesteranus as prebiotic agents in preventing and treating gut dysbiosis and alcohol-related metabolic disorders in individuals with ALD. The results showed that PGP treatment reduced oxidative stress by up-regulating the Nrf2/HO-1 signalling pathways, and decreased the pro-inflammatory factors by down-regulating TLR4/NF-κB signalling pathways. Furthermore, we validated effects of PGPs on balancing the gut-liver axis by maintaining the integrity of the intestinal epithelial barrier of decreasing intestinal permeability, increasing intestinal tight-junction protein and mucin expression and elevating the abundance of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) producers in the intestine by regulating the microbiota composition.

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis polysaccharide ameliorates cholestatic liver injury by alleviating gut microbiota dysbiosis and inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is a well-known herbal medicine. In this study, the effect of G. jasminoides Ellis polysaccharide (GPS) on liver injury in an alpha-naphthylisothiocyanate (ANIT)-induced cholestatic mouse model and the associated molecular mechanisms were investigated. GPS administration dose-dependently ameliorated impaired hepatic function, including a 2-7-fold decrease in aminotransferase levels, ameliorating tissue damage, upregulating the expression of farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and pregnane X receptor (PXR) and their downstream efflux transporters, and decreasing the levels of 12 bile acids (BAs), in cholestatic mice. Furthermore, GPS ameliorated gut microbiota dysbiosis, improved intestinal barrier function, and reduced serum and hepatic lipopolysaccharide levels 1.5-fold. GPS also inhibited the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling, decreased the expression of inflammatory factor genes, and ameliorated hepatic inflammation. Notably, fecal microbiota transplantation from GPS-fed mice also increased the hepatic expression of FXR, PXR, and efflux transporters; decreased the levels of 12 BAs; restored intestinal barrier function; and decreased hepatic inflammation mediated by the TLR4/NF-κB pathway. In conclusion, GPS has a protective effect against cholestatic liver injury through modulation of gut microbiota and inhibition of the TLR4/NF-κB pathway. Regulating gut microbiota using herbal medicine polysaccharides may hold unique therapeutic promise for cholestatic liver diseases.

Modulatory effects of polysaccharides from plants, marine algae and edible mushrooms on gut microbiota and related health benefits: A review

Naturally occurring carbohydrate polymers containing non-starch polysaccharides (NPs) are a class of biomacromolecules isolated from plants, marine algae, and edible mushrooms, and their biological activities has shown potential uses in the prevention and treatment of human diseases. Importantly, NPs serve as prebiotics to provide health benefits to the host through stimulating the proliferation of beneficial gut microbiota (GM) and enhancing the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). The composition and diversity of GM play a critical role in regulating host health and have been extensively studied in recent years. In this review, the extraction, isolation, purification, and structural characterization of NPs derived from plants, marine algae, and edible mushrooms are outlined. Importantly, the degradation and metabolism of these NPs in the intestinal tract, the effects of NPs on the microbial community and SCFAs generation, and the beneficial effects of NPs on host health by modulating GM are systematically highlighted. Overall, we hope that this review can provide some theoretical references and a new perspective for applications of NPs as prebiotics in functional food and drug development.

Structural characterization of a polysaccharide from Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench (okra) and its hypoglycemic effect and mechanism on type 2 diabetes mellitus

A novel acidic polysaccharide named AeP-P-1 was prepared from Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench (okra).

Sulfation modification enhances the intestinal regulation of Cyclocarya paliurus polysaccharides in cyclophosphamide-treated mice via restoring intestinal mucosal barrier function and modulating gut microbiota

This work aimed to investigate the effects of a sulfated derivative of Cyclocarya paliurus polysaccharide (SCP3) on cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced intestinal barrier damage and intestinal microbiota in mice. The results showed that SCP3 increased the intestine antioxidant defense, repaired the intestinal barrier via restoring villi length and crypt depth, and up-regulated the expression of tight junction proteins. Bacterial 16S rRNA sequencing results confirmed that SCP3 dramatically altered the structure of the gut microbiota, increased the diversity of gut microbiota, and regulated the relative abundances of specific bacteria, including increasing the abundances of Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Tenericutes, Oscillospira, and Akkermansia, and decreasing the abundances of Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia. In conclusion, SCP3 can improve intestinal function in CTX-treated mice via enhancing the intestinal oxidative stress capacity, repairing the intestinal mucosal barrier, and regulating intestinal microorganisms, and this study provides a scientific theoretical basis for the application of SCP3 in the food and pharmaceutical fields.

Interaction between polysaccharides and toll-like receptor 4: Primary structural role, immune balance perspective, and 3D interaction model hypothesis

Various structural types of polysaccharides are recognized by toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). However, the mechanism of interaction between the polysaccharides with different structures and TLR4 is unclarified. This review summarized the primary structure of polysaccharides related to TLR4, mainly including molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, glycosidic bonds, functional groups, and branched-chain structure. The optimal primary structure for interacting with TLR4 was obtained by the statistical analysis. Besides, the dual-directional regulation of TLR4 signaling cascade by polysaccharides was also elucidated from an immune balance perspective. Finally, the 3D interaction model of polysaccharides to TLR4-myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD2) complex was hypothesized according to the LPS-TLR4-MD2 dimerization model and the polysaccharides solution conformation. The essence of polysaccharides binding to TLR4-MD2 complex is a multivalent non-covalent bond interaction. All the arguments summarized in this review are intended to provide some new insights into the interaction between polysaccharides and TLR4.

Enteromorpha prolifera polysaccharide-zinc complex modulates the immune response and alleviates LPS-induced intestinal inflammation via inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

Enteromorpha prolifera polysaccharide-zinc (EP-Zn), a kind of polysaccharide-zinc complex, has been shown to improve the immune response and reduce the inflammatory factors in weaned piglets. Yet, the molecular mechanism remains unclear. The present study was conducted to investigate the immunomodulating activity and anti-inflammatory mechanism of EP-Zn in mice. Different doses (350 mg kg^-1, 700 mg kg^-1, 1050 mg kg^-1 and 1400 mg kg^-1) of EP-Zn were administered to C57BL/6J mice for 28 days. The results showed that under physiological conditions, 350 mg kg^-1 EP-Zn stimulated cytokine (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10) secrection, regulated the intestinal microbiota, and reduced the levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) (acetic acid and propionic acid). In addition, in the LPS-induced inflammation model, EP-Zn pretreatment effectively alleviated LPS-induced shortening of colonic length and increased MPO and DAO contents, improved intestinal physical barrier function by modulating mucosal structure, and attenuated intestinal inflammation via inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. These findings suggested that EP-Zn exerted immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activities under physiological and inflammatory conditions, respectively.

Effects and Mechanisms of Probiotics, Prebiotics, Synbiotics, and Postbiotics on Metabolic Diseases Targeting Gut Microbiota: A Narrative Review

Metabolic diseases are serious threats to public health and related to gut microbiota. Probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and postbiotics (PPSP) are powerful regulators of gut microbiota, thus possessing prospects for preventing metabolic diseases. Therefore, the effects and mechanisms of PPSP on metabolic diseases targeting gut microbiota are worth discussing and clarifying. Generally, PPSP benefit metabolic diseases management, especially obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. The underlying gut microbial-related mechanisms are mainly the modulation of gut microbiota composition, regulation of gut microbial metabolites, and improvement of intestinal barrier function. Moreover, clinical trials showed the benefits of PPSP on patients with metabolic diseases, while the clinical strategies for gestational diabetes mellitus, optimal formula of synbiotics and health benefits of postbiotics need further study. This review fully summarizes the relationship between probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, postbiotics, and metabolic diseases, presents promising results and the one in dispute, and especially attention is paid to illustrates potential mechanisms and clinical effects, which could contribute to the next research and development of PPSP.

Integrating multiple-chromatographic approaches to evaluate chemical consistency of Chang-Kang-Fang preparations from mixed-herb decoction and combined single-herb decoction

Chang-Kang-Fang formula (CKF), a multi-herbs traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) prescription for treating irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), has been clinically applied in the traditional form of mixed-herb decoction (MHD), or in the modern form of combined single-herb decoction (cSHD, so called dispensing granule decoction) in the near decades, but the chemical consistency between the MHD and cSHD is still unknown. Herein, a new strategy by integrating multiple-chromatographic approaches to characterize both polysaccharides and small molecules was developed to compare the chemical consistency between MHD and cSHD. Sixteen small molecules were simultaneously qualified and quantified by UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS, the molecular weight distribution of polysaccharides was characterized by HPGPC-ELSD, while the monosaccharide composition and total saccharides content were determined by HPLC-PDA and UV-VIS, respectively. It was found that the molecular weight range and monosaccharide composition of polysaccharides, as well as the composition of small molecules, were identical between MHD and cSHD. However, the contents of berberine, epiberberine, coptisine, palmatine, albiflorin and paeoniflorin in MHD were significantly lower than those in cSHD, whereas the content of polysaccharides in MHD was higher than that in cSHD, indicating that there is a significant difference in the quality between MHD and cSHD, in particular for the relative contents of major small molecules and polysaccharides. Whether or not these quality variations affect the efficacy and safety of CKF deserves further investigation.

The beneficial effects of polysaccharide obtained from persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.) on the proliferation of Lactobacillus and gut microbiota

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of polysaccharide extracts from persimmon (PPE) on the proliferation of Lactobacillus and the gut microbiota of mice. Lactobacillus strains were cultured in medium containing PPE, and differential gene expression was evaluated using transcriptomics. In addition, 16S rDNA was employed to analyze the abundance and diversity of fecal colonies in mice, and the influence of PPE on the intestinal flora in mice was further examined. The results showed that Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM and Lactobacillus acidophilus CICC 6075 could proliferate in PPE medium. Gene ontology (GO) analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomics (KEGG) pathway analysis indicated that glucose metabolism-related genes, such as phosphoyruvate hydratase (eno) and PTS mannose transporter subunit IIAB (manX), were up-regulated. The metabolic pathways of fructose and mannose were also significantly up-regulated. After gavage of mice with PPE, 16S rDNA sequencing of mouse feces indicated that the beneficial bacteria in the intestines proliferated and the abundance of harmful bacteria was reduced. PPE can maintain the balance of intestinal microorganisms in mice. Therefore, PPE has a significant positive effect on both Lactobacillus proliferation and gut microbiota of mice.

Effect of an Antibacterial Polysaccharide Produced by Chaetomium globosum CGMCC 6882 on the Gut Microbiota of Mice

Previously, a polysaccharide produced by Chaetomiumglobosum CGMCC 6882 was found to have antibacterial activity, but its toxic effects on body health and gut microbiota were concealed. Recent results showed that this polysaccharide was safe to Caco-2 cells and mice, while it reduced the body weight gain of mice from 10.5 ± 1.21 g to 8.4 ± 1.17 g after 28 days administration. Acetate, propionate, butyrate and total short-chain fatty acids concentrations increased from 23.85 ± 1.37 μmol/g, 10.23 ± 0.78 μmol/g, 7.15 ± 0.35 μmol/g and 41.23 ± 0.86 μmol/g to 42.77 ± 1.29 μmol/g, 20.03 ± 1.44 μmol/g, 12.06 ± 0.51 μmol/g and 74.86 ± 2.07 μmol/g, respectively. Furthermore, this polysaccharide enriched the abundance of gut microbiota and the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio was increased from 0.5172 to 0.7238. Overall, this study provides good guidance for the promising application of polysaccharides as preservatives in foods and in other fields in the future.

Protective effects of sulfated polysaccharide from Enterobacter cloacae Z0206 against DSS-induced intestinal injury via DNA methylation

We previously obtained and characterized a novel sulfated derivative of the exopolysaccharides from Enterobacter cloacae Z0206 (SEPS). This study aimed at investigating the effects and mechanism of SEPS against dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) induced intestinal injury. The results showed that SEPS increased the proliferation and survival of intestinal epithelial cells during DSS stimulation. Furthermore, SEPS maintained the barrier function and inflammatory response via JAK2 and MAPK signaling to protect against DSS-induced intestinal injury. Mechanistically, SEPS elevated the DNA methylation in the promoter region to negatively regulate the JAK2 and MAPKs expression. Thus, the current study shows the potential effects and mechanism of SEPS on DSS-induced intestinal epithelial cell injury.

Cyclocarya paliurus polysaccharide improves metabolic function of gut microbiota by regulating short-chain fatty acids and gut microbiota composition

The purpose of this paper was to investigate the effects of Cyclocarya paliurus polysaccharide (CP) on gut microbiota composition and predict metabolic function in healthy mice. Healthy Kunming mice were continuously gavaged with CP for 20 days, and mouse feces were collected for analysis. The results showed that CP could remarkably increase the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs; acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, and valeric acid) in the feces of healthy mice in a dose-dependent matter. 16S rRNA showed that 200 mg/kg body weight CP was effective in increasing diversity of the gut microbiota in healthy mice and affected the relative abundance of specific bacteria. Lachnospiraceae, Clostridiales, and Clostridia were identified as the phenotypic biomarkers of the CP-H group compared with the normal control group. In addition, PICRUSt2 showed that starch and sucrose metabolism, amino acid metabolism, glycerolipid metabolism, pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis, biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids, and C5-branched dibasic acid metabolism are the primary enriched phenotypic KEGG pathways in the CP-H group. These findings suggested that early CP intervention could enhance the metabolic function of gut microbiota by increasing the release of SCFAs and altering the composition of gut microbiota.

Potential Role of Natural Plant Medicine Cyclocarya paliurus in the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a common chronic metabolic disease that has become increasingly prevalent worldwide. It poses a serious threat to human health and places a considerable burden on global social medical work. To meet the increasing demand for T2DM treatment, research on hypoglycemic drugs is rapidly developing. Cyclocarya paliurus (Batal.) Iljinskaja is a medicinal plant that grows in China. The leaves of C. paliurus contain polysaccharides, triterpenoids, and other chemical components, which have numerous health benefits. Therefore, the use of this plant has attracted extensive attention in the medical community. Over the past few decades, contemporary pharmacological studies on C. paliurus extracts have revealed that it has abundant biological activities. Multiple in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that C. paliurus extracts are safe and can play a therapeutic role in T2DM through anti-inflammatory and antioxidation activities, and intestinal flora regulation. Its efficacy is closely related to many factors, such as extraction, separation, purification, and modification. Based on summarizing the existing extraction methods, this article further reviews the potential mechanism of C. paliurus extracts in T2DM treatment, and we aimed to provide a reference for future research on natural plant medicine for the prevention and treatment of T2DM and its related complications.