Chitosan modified poly (lactic acid) nanoparticles increased the ursolic acid oral bioavailability

A Comprehensive Review of Nanoparticles: From Classification to Application and Toxicity

Nanoparticles are structures that possess unique properties with high surface area-to-volume ratio. Their small size, up to 100 nm, and potential for surface modifications have enabled their use in a wide range of applications. Various factors influence the properties and applications of NPs, including the synthesis method and physical attributes such as size and shape. Additionally, the materials used in the synthesis of NPs are primary determinants of their application. Based on the chosen material, NPs are generally classified into three categories: organic, inorganic, and carbon-based. These categories include a variety of materials, such as proteins, polymers, metal ions, lipids and derivatives, magnetic minerals, and so on. Each material possesses unique attributes that influence the activity and application of the NPs. Consequently, certain NPs are typically used in particular areas because they possess higher efficiency along with tenable toxicity. Therefore, the classification and the base material in the NP synthesis hold significant importance in both NP research and application. In this paper, we discuss these classifications, exemplify most of the major materials, and categorize them according to their preferred area of application. This review provides an overall review of the materials, including their application, and toxicity.

Natural compounds-based nanomedicines for cancer treatment: Future directions and challenges

Several efforts have been extensively accomplished for the amelioration of the cancer treatments using different types of new drugs and less invasives therapies in comparison with the traditional therapeutic modalities, which are widely associated with numerous drawbacks, such as drug resistance, non-selectivity and high costs, restraining their clinical response. The application of natural compounds for the prevention and treatment of different cancer cells has attracted significant attention from the pharmaceuticals and scientific communities over the past decades. Although the use of nanotechnology in cancer therapy is still in the preliminary stages, the application of nanotherapeutics has demonstrated to decrease the various limitations related to the use of natural compounds, such as physical/chemical instability, poor aqueous solubility, and low bioavailability. Despite the nanotechnology has emerged as a promise to improve the bioavailability of the natural compounds, there are still limited clinical trials performed for their application with various challenges required for the pre-clinical and clinical trials, such as production at an industrial level, assurance of nanotherapeutics long-term stability, physiological barriers and safety and regulatory issues. This review highlights the most recent advances in the nanocarriers for natural compounds secreted from plants, bacteria, fungi, and marine organisms, as well as their role on cell signaling pathways for anticancer treatments. Additionally, the clinical status and the main challenges regarding the natural compounds loaded in nanocarriers for clinical applications were also discussed.

Oral Delivery of Liraglutide-Loaded Zein/Eudragit-Chitosan Nanoparticles Provides Pharmacokinetic and Glycemic Outcomes Comparable to Its Subcutaneous Injection in Rats

Liraglutide (LIRA) is a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist renowned for its efficacy in treating type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and is typically administered via subcutaneous injections. Oral delivery, although more desirable for being painless and potentially enhancing patient adherence, is challenged by the peptide's low bioavailability and vulnerability to digestive enzymes. This study aimed to develop LIRA-containing zein-based nanoparticles stabilized with eudragit RS100 and chitosan for oral use (Z-ERS-CS/LIRA). These nanoparticles demonstrated a spherical shape, with a mean diameter of 238.6 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.099, a zeta potential of +40.9 mV, and an encapsulation efficiency of 41%. In vitro release studies indicated a prolonged release, with up to 61% of LIRA released over 24 h. Notably, the nanoparticles showed considerable resistance and stability in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids, suggesting protection from pH and enzymatic degradation. Pharmacokinetic analysis revealed that orally administered Z-ERS-CS/LIRA paralleled the pharmacokinetic profile seen with subcutaneously delivered LIRA. Furthermore, in vivo tests on a diabetic rat model showed that Z-ERS-CS/LIRA significantly controlled glucose levels, comparable to the results observed with free LIRA. The findings underscore Z-ERS-CS/LIRA nanoparticles as a promising approach for oral LIRA delivery in T2DM management.

Ursolic acid loaded tri-block copolymer nanoparticles based on triphenylphosphine for mitochondria-targeted cancer therapy

A novel biodegradable amphiphilic triblock copolymer, polyphosphate, polyethylene glycol, and polylactic acid (PAEEP-PEG-PLLA), was synthesized by twice ring-opening polymerization and triphenylphosphine (TPP) was grafted onto the block copolymer to synthesize a carrier material TPP-PAEEP-PEG-PLLA, which was identified by1H-nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) spectroscopy. The TPP-PAEEP-PEG-PLLA nanoparticles encapsulated with ursolic acid (UA) were prepared by the emulsion-solvent evaporation method and characterized by dynamic light scattering. The mitochondrial targeting ability of fluorescently labeled nanoparticles was evaluated by laser confocal microscopy. The average particle size and surface charge of the UA -loaded nanoparticle solution were 180.07 ± 1.67 nm and +15.57 ± 1.33 mV, respectively. The biocompatibility of nanoparticles was briefly evaluated by erythrocyte hemolysis assay.In vitrocell proliferation assay and scratch migration assay were performed to compare the difference in anti-tumor effect between UA and UA nanoparticles. The results showed that TPP-modified triblock copolymers had good mitochondrial targeting and improved the low bioavailability of UA, and UA nanoparticles exhibited more pronounced anti-tumor capabilities. In summary, the results suggested that our UA nanoparticles were a promising drug-targeted delivery system for the treatment of tumors.

Mitigating amphotericin B cytotoxicity through gliadin-casein nanoparticles: Insights into synthesis, optimization, characterization, in vitro release and cytotoxicity evaluation

Amphotericin B (AmB) is a widely used antifungal agent; however, its clinical application is limited due to severe side effects and nephrotoxicity associated with parenteral administration. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the utilization of food-grade materials as innovative components for nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems. This study introduces gliadin/casein nanoparticles encapsulating AmB (AmB_GliCas NPs), synthesized via antisolvent precipitation. Formulation was refined using a 24 factorial design, assessing the influence of gliadin and casein concentrations, as well as organic and aqueous phase volumes, on particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential. The optimal composition with 2 % gliadin, 0.5 % casein, and a 1:5 organic-to-aqueous phase ratio, yielded nanoparticles with a 442 nm size, a 0.307 PDI, a -20 mV zeta potential, and 82 % entrapment efficiency. AmB was confirmed to be amorphous within the nanoparticles by X-ray diffraction. These NPs released AmB sustainably over 96 h, primarily in its monomeric form. Moreover, NPs maintained stability in simulated gastrointestinal fluids with minimal drug release and showed significantly lower hemolytic activity and cytotoxicity on Vero cells than free AmB, suggesting their promise for oral AmB delivery.

Bio-evaluations of sericin coated hesperidin nanoparticles for gastric ulcer management

Gastric ulcers are worrying, and their worsening conditions may result in bleeding in the internal lining of the stomach. The problem is annoying, and both patients and professionals are still not satisfied with the available treatment options. Hesperidin, a flavonoid molecule with potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, can work like witchcraft to repair gastric ulcers and preserve the stomach lining. Here, we employed a strategy that involved covering the surface of the nano-lipid carriers (NLCs) with sericin before encasing the hesperidin within (Se-He-NLC). Sericin, a biodegradable polymer increases the muco-adhesion with stomach lining and deployment of hesperidin in controlled manner. Se-He-NLCs were physico-chemically characterized for drug loading, encapsulation, particle size, morphology, drug release, chemical stability, and chemical bonding. The nanocarriers showed first order drug release in a controlled manner. Se-He-NLCs showed better in vitro permeation and ex vivo mucoadhesion, thereby by promoting the in vivo bioavailability. Se-He-NLCs also promoted the reduced glutathione (GSH) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) levels by 2.24- and 1.61-folds, respectively in the stomach lining, and also the regulation of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities parallel to the control group. In addition, tissues lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity were reduced significantly with Se-He-NLCs administration. Se-He-NLC therapy of stomach ulcers in vivo demonstrated better binding ratio and ulcer healing potential. This approach reveals huge capacity for delivering therapies to treat gastric ulcers based on the clinical significance of sericin coated hesperidin nanocarriers in gastric ulcer treatment.

Enhancing Oral Bioavailability and Brain Biodistribution of Perillyl Alcohol Using Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

Perillyl alcohol (POH), a bioactive monoterpenoid derived from limonene, shows promise as an antitumor agent for brain tumor treatment. However, its limited oral bioavailability and inadequate brain distribution hinder its efficacy. To address these challenges, this study developed nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) loaded with POH to improve its brain biodistribution. The NLCs prepared using hot homogenization exhibited an average diameter of 287 nm and a spherical morphology with a polydispersity index of 0.143. High encapsulation efficiency of 99.68% was achieved. X-ray diffraction analyses confirmed the semicrystalline state of POH-loaded NLCs. In vitro release studies demonstrated a biphasic release profile. Stability studies in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids confirmed their ability to withstand pH variations and digestive enzymes. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies in rats revealed significantly enhanced oral bioavailability of POH when encapsulated in the NLCs. Biodistribution studies showed increased POH concentration in brain tissue with NLCs compared with free POH, which was distributed more in non-target tissues such as the liver, lungs, kidneys, and spleen. These findings underscore the potential of NLCs as effective delivery systems for enhancing oral bioavailability and brain biodistribution of POH, providing a potential therapeutic strategy for brain tumor treatment.

Therapeutic potential and novel formulations of ursolic acid and its derivatives: an updated review

Plants produce biologically active metabolites that have been utilised to cure a variety of severe and persistent illnesses. There is a possibility that understanding how these bioactive molecules work would allow researchers to come up with better treatments for diseases including malignancy, cardiac disease and neurological disorders. A triterpene called ursolic acid (UA) is a pentacyclic prevalent triterpenoid found in fruits, leaves, herbs and blooms. The biological and chemical aspects of UA, as well as their presence, plant sources and biosynthesis, and traditional and newer technologies of extraction, are discussed in this review. Because of its biological function in the creation of new therapeutic techniques, UA is a feasible option for the evolution and medical management of a wide range of medical conditions, including cancer and other life threatening diseases. Despite this, the substance's poor solubility in aquatic environments makes it unsuitable for medicinal purposes. This hurdle was resolved in many different ways. The inclusion of UA into various pharmaceutical delivery approaches was found to be quite effective in this respect. This review also describes the properties of UA and its pharmacokinetics, as well as therapeutic applications of UA for cancer, inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases, in addition to its anti-diabetic, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective and anti-microbial properties. Some of the recent findings related to novel nano-sized carriers as a delivery system for UA and the patents related to the applications of UA and its various derivatives are covered in this review. The analytical study of UA, oleanolic acid and other phytoconstituents by UV, HPLC, high-performance thin-layer chromatography and gas chromatography is also discussed. In the future, UA could be explored in vivo using various animal models and, in addition, the regulatory status regarding UA needs to be explored. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect and mechanism of edible oil co-digestion on the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of ursolic acid

Ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpenoid, has gained attentions due to its various health-promoting benefits, but exhibits poor bioavailability. This could be enhanced by changing the food matrix of UA in which it is present. In this study, several UA systems were constructed to investigate the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of UA in combination with in vitro simulated digestion and Caco-2 cell models. The results showed that the bioaccessibility of UA was significantly improved after adding rapeseed oil. Caco-2 cell models showed that the UA-oil blend was more advantageous than UA emulsion in total absorption. The results indicate that the location of UA distribution in oil determines the ease of UA release into the mixed micellar phase. This paper brings a new research idea and basis for the design of improving the bioavailability of hydrophobic compounds.

Rational design of a minimum nanoplatform for maximizing therapeutic potency: Three birds with one stone

Therapeutic modalities and drug formulations play a crucial and prominent role in actualizing effective treatment and radical cures of tumors. However, the therapeutic efficiency was severely limited by tumor recurrence and complex multi-step preparation of formulation. Therefore, the exploration of novel nanoparticles via a simple and green synthesis process for conquering traditional obstacles and improving therapeutic efficiency is an appealing, yet remarkably challenging task. Herein, a universal nanoplatform allows all cancerous cell-targeting, acid-responsive, cell imaging, synergistic chemotherapy, and nucleolar targeted phototherapy function was tactfully designed and constructed by using chemotherapeutic agents ursolic acid (UA), sorafenib (SF), and carbon dots (CDs) photosensitizers (PSs). The designed US NPs were formed by self-assembly of UA and SF associated with electrostatic, π-π stacking, and hydrophobic interactions. After hydrogen bonding reaction with CDs, the obtained (denoted as USC NPs) have a relatively uniform size of an average 125.6 nm, which facilitated the favorable accumulation of drugs at the tumor region through a potential enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect as compared to their counterpart of free CDs solution. Both in vitro and in vivo studies revealed that the advanced platform commenced synergistic anticancer therapeutic potency, imperceptible systematical toxicity, and remarkable reticence towards drug-resistant cancer cells. Moreover, the CDs PSs possess intrinsic nucleolus-targeting ability. Taken together, this theranostics system can fully play the role of "killing three birds with one stone" in a safe manner, implying a promising direction for exploring treatment strategies for cancer and endowing them with great potential for future translational research and providing a new vision for the advancing of an exceptionally forceful protocol for practical cancer therapy.

Nanotechnology-Based Approaches for Voriconazole Delivery Applied to Invasive Fungal Infections

Invasive fungal infections increase mortality and morbidity rates worldwide. The treatment of these infections is still limited due to the low bioavailability and toxicity, requiring therapeutic monitoring, especially in the most severe cases. Voriconazole is an azole widely used to treat invasive aspergillosis, other hyaline molds, many dematiaceous molds, Candida spp., including those resistant to fluconazole, and for infections caused by endemic mycoses, in addition to those that occur in the central nervous system. However, despite its broad activity, using voriconazole has limitations related to its non-linear pharmacokinetics, leading to supratherapeutic doses and increased toxicity according to individual polymorphisms during its metabolism. In this sense, nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems have successfully improved the physicochemical and biological aspects of different classes of drugs, including antifungals. In this review, we highlighted recent work that has applied nanotechnology to deliver voriconazole. These systems allowed increased permeation and deposition of voriconazole in target tissues from a controlled and sustained release in different routes of administration such as ocular, pulmonary, oral, topical, and parenteral. Thus, nanotechnology application aiming to delivery voriconazole becomes a more effective and safer therapeutic alternative in the treatment of fungal infections.

Hyaluronic Acid-modified Liposomes for Ursolic Acid-targeted Delivery Treat Lung Cancer Based on p53/ARTS-mediated Mitochondrial Apoptosis

Background

Chemotherapy drugs can cause drug resistance and other problems when treating lung cancer, which leads to treatment failure. Ursolic acid (UA) is used in formulations based on traditional Chinese medicine. UA has excellent anti-tumor effects, but they are limited by solubility and non-specificity to tumor cells.

Objectives

To overcome these issues, we created a novel hyaluronic acid (HA)-targeted liposome system for delivering UA (HA-Lipo/UA) to explore the targeting and anti-tumor effects of UA.

Methods

We constructed the HA-Lipo/UA delivery system by the thin film hydration method. The uptake and localization of UA were detected by flow cytometry and microscope. Cell proliferation of A549 cells was detected by MTT assays. Apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) expression of A549 cells were also evaluated after being treated with HA-Lipo/UA. Western blot analysis evaluated the anti-tumor mechanism of HA-Lipo/UA.

Results

HA-Lipo/UA exhibited favorable targeting of the cluster of differentiation (CD)44-overexpressing A549 cells. HA-Lipo/UA exhibited significant inhibition of the proliferation of A549 cells and induced their apoptosis compared with the corresponding monotherapies. HA-Lipo/UA induced overexpression of reactive oxygen species and upregulated expression of p53 and apoptosis-related protein in the transforming growth factor-β signaling (ARTS) pathway, which induced cytochrome-c release, activation of caspase-3, and promoted mitochondrial apoptosis in A549 cells.

Conclusions

Taken together, these data suggested that HA-Lipo/UA could be used to target tumor cells.

Mucoadhesive carriers for oral drug delivery

Among the various dosage forms, oral medicine has extensive benefits including ease of administration and patients' compliance, over injectable, suppositories, ocular and nasal. Despite of extensive demand and emerging advantages, over 50% of therapeutic molecules are not available in oral form due to their physicochemical properties. More importantly, most of the biologics, proteins, peptide, and large molecular drugs are mostly available in injectable form. Conventional oral drug delivery system has limitation such as degradation and lack of stability within stomach due to presence of highly acidic gastric fluid, hinders their therapeutic efficacy and demand more frequent and higher dosing. Hence, formulation for controlled, sustained, and targeted drug delivery, need to be designed with feasibility to target the specific region of gastrointestinal (GI) tract such as stomach, small intestine, intestine lymphatic, and colon is challenging. Among various oral delivery approaches, mucoadhesive vehicles are promising and has potential for improving oral drug retention and controlled absorption to treat local diseases within the GI tract, as well systemic diseases. This review provides the overview about the challenges and opportunities to design mucoadhesive formulation for oral delivery of therapeutics in a way to target the specific region of the GI tract. Finally, we have concluded with future perspective and potential of mucoadhesive formulations for oral local and systemic delivery.

Phragmites rhizoma polysaccharide-based nanocarriers for synergistic treatment of ulcerative colitis

The purpose of this study was to construct Phragmites rhizoma polysaccharide-based nano-drug delivery systems (PRP2-SeNPs-H/Aza-Lips) for synergistically alleviating ulcerative colitis and to investigate the important roles of Phragmites rhizoma polysaccharide-based nanocarriers in PRP2-SeNPs-H/Aza-Lips. Phragmites rhizoma polysaccharide (PRP2) was isolated and used for the preparation of Phragmites rhizoma polysaccharide selenium nanoparticles with low selenium content (PRP2-SeNPs-L) and high selenium content (PRP2-SeNPs-H). Based on the electrostatic attraction between PRP2-SeNPs-H and azathioprine liposomes (Aza-Lips), PRP2-SeNPs-H/Aza-Lips were constructed for precise delivery of the model drug azathioprine (Aza) to colon lesions. Results showed that PRP2 significantly alleviated the clinical symptoms and colon tissue damage and down-regulated the levels of inflammatory factors in serum and colon, demonstrating beneficial effects on mice with ulcerative colitis. PRP2-SeNPs-L had better relieving effects on ulcerative colitis. Phragmites rhizoma polysaccharide-based nanocarriers may protect azathioprine liposomes against gastrointestinal digestion, enhance the therapeutic effects on ulcerative colitis, and significantly reduce liver damage from azathioprine, which helps to improve the efficacy and toxicity of clinical drugs.

Biodegradable Nanoparticles Prepared from Chitosan and Casein for Delivery of Bioactive Polysaccharides

Ophiopogon japonicus polysaccharides (OJPs) have great anti-inflammation and immunomodulatory abilities. However, the low bioavailability of OJPs reduces its applicability in the biomedical and pharmaceutical fields. Chitosan (CS) has excellent mucoadhesive properties and absorption-enhancing ability in oral administration. Casein hydrolysate (CL) has good interfacial diffusivity and emulsifying ability, and can interact with polysaccharides to form complexes combining the individual properties of both. Therefore, chitosan and casein hydrolysate are good candidates for developing nanoformulations for oral delivery. In this study, bioactive polysaccharides (OJPs), CS and CL, were combined to prepare CS/OJPs/CL co-assembled biodegradable nanoparticles. The interactions between polysaccharides (CS and OJPs) and peptide (CL) resulted in the formation of nanoparticles with an average particle size of 198 nm and high OJPs loading efficiency. The colloidal properties of the nanoparticles were pH-dependent, which were changed significantly in simulated digestive fluid at different pH values. OJPs released from the CS/OJPs/CL nanoparticles were greatly affected by pH and enzymatic degradation (trypsin and lysozyme). The nanoparticles were easily internalized by macrophages, thereby enhancing the OJPs’ inhibitory ability against Ni²⁺-induced cytotoxicity and LPS-induced nitric oxide production. This study demonstrates that prepared polysaccharide/protein co-assembled nanoparticles can be potential nanocarriers for the oral delivery of bioactive polysaccharides with anti-inflammatory functions.

Recent Advancement in Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles for Improved Oral Bioavailability and Bioactivity of Phytochemicals: Challenges and Perspectives

The excellent therapeutic potential of a variety of phytochemicals in different diseases has been proven by extensive studies throughout history. However, most phytochemicals are characterized by a high molecular weight, poor aqueous solubility, limited gastrointestinal permeability, extensive pre-systemic metabolism, and poor stability in the harsh gastrointestinal milieu. Therefore, loading of these phytochemicals in biodegradable and biocompatible nanoparticles (NPs) might be an effective approach to improve their bioactivity. Different nanocarrier systems have been developed in recent decades to deliver phytochemicals. Among them, NPs based on chitosan (CS) (CS-NPs), a mucoadhesive, non-toxic, and biodegradable polysaccharide, are considered the best nanoplatform for the oral delivery of phytochemicals. This review highlights the oral delivery of natural products, i.e., phytochemicals, encapsulated in NPs prepared from a natural polymer, i.e., CS, for improved bioavailability and bioactivity. The unique properties of CS for oral delivery such as its mucoadhesiveness, non-toxicity, excellent stability in the harsh environment of the GIT, good solubility in slightly acidic and alkaline conditions, and ability to enhance intestinal permeability are discussed first, and then the outcomes of various phytochemical-loaded CS-NPs after oral administration are discussed in detail. Furthermore, different challenges associated with the oral delivery of phytochemicals with CS-NPs and future directions are also discussed.

Efficacy of Ursolic Acid-Enriched Water-Soluble and Not Cytotoxic Nanoparticles against Enterococci

Ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpenoid acid found in many medicinal plants and aromas, is known for its antibacterial effects against multi-drug-resistant (MDR) Gram-positive bacteria, which seriously threaten human health. Unfortunately, UA water-insolubility, low bioavailability, and systemic toxicity limit the possibilities of its application in vivo. Consequently, the beneficial activities of UA observed in vitro lose their potential clinical relevance unless water-soluble, not cytotoxic UA formulations are developed. With a nano-technologic approach, we have recently prepared water-soluble UA-loaded dendrimer nanoparticles (UA-G4K NPs) non-cytotoxic on HeLa cells, with promising physicochemical properties for their clinical applications. In this work, with the aim of developing a new antibacterial agent based on UA, UA-G4K has been tested on different strains of the Enterococcus genus, including marine isolates, toward which UA-G4K has shown minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) very low (0.5-4.3 µM), regardless of their resistance to antibiotics. Time-kill experiments, in addition to confirming the previously reported bactericidal activity of UA against E. faecium, also established it for UA-G4K. Furthermore, cytotoxicity experiments on human keratinocytes revealed that nanomanipulation of UA significantly reduced the cytotoxicity of UA, providing UA-G4K NPs with very high LD₅₀ (96.4 µM) and selectivity indices, which were in the range 22.4-192.8, depending on the enterococcal strain tested. Due to its physicochemical and biological properties, UA-G4K could be seriously evaluated as a novel oral-administrable therapeutic option for tackling difficult-to-treat enterococcal infections.

Colon-targeted drug delivery of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers for synergistic treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: A review

Drugs such as immunosuppressants and glucocorticoids used for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) have certain troubling side effects. Polysaccharide-based nanocarriers with high safety and bioavailability are often used in the construction of colon-targeted drug nanodelivery systems (DNSs). It can help the drug resist the harsh environment of gastrointestinal tract, improve stability and concentrate on the intestinal inflammation regions as much as possible, which effectively reduces drug side effects and enhances its bioavailability. Certain polysaccharides, as prebiotics, can not only endow DNSs with the ability to target the colon based on enzyme responsive properties, but also cooperate with drugs to alleviate IBD due to its good anti-inflammatory activity and intestinal microecological regulation. The changes in the gastrointestinal environment of patients with IBD, the colon-targeted drug delivery process of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers and its synergistic treatment mechanism for IBD were reviewed. Polysaccharides used in polysaccharide-based nanocarriers for IBD were summarized.

Surface-modified polylactic acid nanospheres with chitosan for antibacterial activity of 1, 2-benzisothiazolin-3-one

The primary purpose of this study was to develop an innovative chitosan (CS) modified polylactic acid (PLA) nanospheres for enhancing the bioavailability of 1, 2-benzisothiazolin-3-one (BIT). The cellular uptake efficiency was corresponded positively to the quantity of CS coated on BIT-PLA nanospheres against E. coli and S. aureus. The membrane potentials of E.coli and S. aureus treated with BIT-PLA, BIT-PLA-0.1%CS and BIT-PLA-0.5%CS were reduced with the extension of incubation time and the ratio of coated CS. The enhancement of CS modified on BIT-PLA nanospheres was reduced antioxidase activities and generated excessive reactive oxygen species. The lowest EC₅₀ value of the modified BIT-PLA-0.5%CS suggested that its toxicity index was around 2.95-fold and 2.11-fold that of non-modified BIT-PLA against E. coli and S. aureus, respectively. These results revealed that the CS modified BIT-PLA nanospheres had a bright prospect in antibacterial formulation delivery system and improving the bioavailability.

Effect of targeting ligand designation of self-assembly chitosan-poloxamer nanogels loaded Paclitacel on inhibiting MCF-7 cancer cell growth

In this study, we investigated two formulations of chitosan-Pluronic P123 with different folate ligand designation for targeted delivery of Paclitaxel (PTX), in which folic acid (FA) was directly conjugated to chitosan (FA-Cs-P123) or substituted onto P123 (Cs-P123-FA). The results showed that the FA content of Cs-P123-FA was determined at 0.71 wt/wt% which was significantly higher than that of FA-Cs-P123 (0.31 wt/wt%). Two copolymers were low critical gel concentrations (CGC). FA-Cs-P123 and Cs-P123-FA nanogels performed high PTX encapsulation efficiency reaching 95.57 ± 5.51 and 92.51 ± 6.68 wt/wt%, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and zeta potential analysis indicated that the PTX-loaded nanogels were spherically formed around 60 nm in diameter along with positive charge. Furthermore, the PTX release profile was slow and it was controlled by the pH of the medium. In particular, in vitro biocompatibility assays indicated that both FA-Cs-P123 and Cs-P123-FA exhibited good biological compatibility with a human foreskin fibroblast cell line and well uptake efficiency into MCF-7 cancer cells. Cs-P123-FA nanogel significantly enhanced the cytotoxicity of PTX in comparison with FA-Cs-P123. The result indicates that Cs-P123-FA nanogels with a higher decorated FA content perform a better targeting efficiency; therefore, they could have great potential application towards breast cancer treatment.

Antiinfective properties of ursolic acid-loaded chitosan nanoparticles against Staphylococcus aureus

The present study aimed to synthesize ursolic acid-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (UA-Ch-NPs) as an antiinfective agent against 21 Staphylococcus aureus isolates. The UA-Ch-NPs were synthesized by a simple method and then characterized by TEM, FTIR, DLS-zeta potential, and XRD analyses. According to the characterization results, highly dispersed spherical nanoparticles with a mean diameter of 258 nm and a zeta potential of + 40.1 mV were developed. The antibacterial properties of UA-Ch-NPs were investigated and their inhibitory effect on biofilm formation was demonstrated by AFM. Finally, the expression levels of icaA and icaD were measured using real-time PCR. Results indicated that the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of UA and UA-Ch-NPs against S. aureus was 64 and 32 µg/mL, respectively. The treatment of bacterial cells with UA-Ch-NPs significantly decreased the expression of icaA and icaD genes which are engaged in biofilm formation. Our results indicated that UA-Ch-NPs could be a promising material for antibacterial and antibiofilm applications.

Effects of Different Drying Methods on the Characterization, Dissolution Rate and Antioxidant Activity of Ursolic Acid-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles

To improve the water solubility of ursolic acid (UA), UA-loaded chitosan nanoparticles were firstly prepared by the ionotropic gelation method and dried by freeze drying (FD), microwave freeze drying (MFD) and spray drying (SD). The characterization of UA-loaded chitosan nanoparticles was performed with particle size, drug loading (DL), scanning electron microscope (SEM), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dissolution studies and antioxidant activity. The results demonstrated that UA was successfully encapsulated into chitosan nanoparticles using sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) as a cross-linker, with a 79% encapsulation efficiency. The spray-dried, UA-loaded chitosan nanoparticles had the lowest drug loading (11.8%) and the highest particle size (496.9 ± 11.20 nm). The particle size of UA-loaded chitosan nanoparticles dried by MFD and FD was lower, at 240.8 ± 12.10 nm and 184.4 ± 10.62 nm, respectively, and their antioxidant activity was higher than those nanoparticles dried by SD. Moreover, the drying time and energy consumption of UA-loaded chitosan nanoparticles dried by MFD and SD were lower than that of FD. The dissolution rates of UA-loaded chitosan nanoparticles prepared by FD and MFD were 60.6% and 57.1%, respectively, in a simulated gastric fluid, which was a greater value than SD (55.9%). Therefore, the UA-loaded chitosan nanoparticles encapsulation method, combined with MFD technology, showed a promising potential to improve the water solubility of UA.

Nanoparticles composed of the tea polysaccharide-complexed cationic vitamin B12-conjugated glycogen derivative

Tea polysaccharides exhibit multiple important bioactivities, but very few of them can be absorbed through the small intestine. To enhance the absorption efficacy of tea polysaccharides, a cationic vitamin B12-conjugated glycogen derivative bearing the diethylenetriamine residues (VB12-DETA-Gly) was synthesized and characterized using FTIR, 1H NMR, and UV-vis spectroscopy. An acidic tea polysaccharide (TPSA) was isolated from green tea. The TPSA/VB12-DETA-Gly complexed nanoparticles were prepared, which showed positive zeta potentials and were irregular spherical nanoparticles in the sizes of 50-100 nm. To enable the fluorescence and UV-vis absorption properties of TPSA, a Congo red residue-conjugated TPSA derivative (CR-TPSA) was synthesized. The interactions and complexation mechanism between the CR-TPSA and the VB12-DETA-Gly derivatives were investigated using fluorescence spectroscopy, resonance light scattering spectroscopy, and UV-vis spectroscopy. The results indicated that the electrostatic interaction could play a major role during the CR-TPSA and VB12-DETA-Gly-II complexation processes. The TPSA/VB12-DETA-Gly nanoparticles were nontoxic and exhibited targeted endocytosis for the Caco-2 cells, and showed high permeation through intestinal enterocytes using the Caco-2 cell model. Therefore, they exhibit potential for enhancing the absorption efficacy of tea polysaccharides through the small intestinal mucosa.

Nanoformulations of Ursolic Acid: A Modern Natural Anticancer Molecule

Background: Ursolic acid (UA) is a natural pentacyclic triterpene derived from fruit, herb, and other plants. UA can act on molecular targets of various signaling pathways, inhibit the growth of cancer cells, promote cycle stagnation, and induce apoptosis, thereby exerting anticancer activity. However, its poor water-solubility, low intestinal mucosal absorption, and low bioavailability restrict its clinical application. In order to overcome these deficiencies, nanotechnology, has been applied to the pharmacological study of UA.

Objective: In this review, we focused on the absorption, distribution, and elimination pharmacokinetics of UA in vivo, as well as on the research progress in various UA nanoformulations, in the hope of providing reference information for the research on the anticancer activity of UA.

Methods: Relevant research articles on Pubmed and Web of Science in recent years were searched selectively by using the keywords and subheadings, and were summarized systematically.

Key finding: The improvement of the antitumor ability of the UA nanoformulations is mainly due to the improvement of the bioavailability and the enhancement of the targeting ability of the UA molecules. UA nanoformulations can even be combined with computational imaging technology for monitoring or diagnosis.

Conclusion: Currently, a variety of UA nanoformulations, such as micelles, liposomes, and nanoparticles, which can increase the solubility and bioactivity of UA, while promoting the accumulation of UA in tumor tissues, have been prepared. Although the research of UA in the nanofield has made great progress, there is still a long way to go before the clinical application of UA nanoformulations.